* AN • 

AMERICAN 
H I STORY 




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AN AMERICAN HISTORY 



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AN AMERICAN HISTORY 



BY 



ELEANOR E. RIGGS, M.A. 

VICE-PRINCIPAL OF THE SOPHIE B. WRIGHT HIGH SCHOOL 
NEW ORLEANS, LOUISIANA 



Nefo got* 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1916 

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Copyright, 1916, 
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



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PREFACE 

The history of the United States is unique in that it 
relates definitely to the growth of the American nation, 
and to the ability of this people to subdue and control the 
forces of natural environment. It is not a chronicle of the 
political and military development of a country. For this 
reason, it has been necessary to note specifically in this 
text the forces that have brought into existence this new 
nation. 

These forces are: First, the many nationalities that 
have helped to form this composite people; second, the 
European influences that have molded a tolerant and 
liberal-minded state; and third, the adjustment of old- 
world civilization upon new-world environment. 

To this end, we find that the study of American history 
must include : First, the land itself ; second, the relation of 
the European background to American history ; third, the 
adjustment of ideals of religion, government, education, 
and industry to a primitive country ; and fourth, the rela- 
tions of this country in international questions. 

Both economic and social forces have been more active 
in the growth of the American people than either conquest 
or militarism. Hence, the study of American history re- 
fers to these interests more than to wars or intrigues. 

The faith of the American people has been unbounded, 
and a study of their history must include a survey of that 
faith which has caused them to remove mountains that 
they might control the possibilities of their lands and 
oceans ; a faith that has caused them to uncover the wealth 



VI PREFACE 

of their mines ; a faith that believes that their deserts may 
be converted into pleasant gardens. 

Because each epoch in American history is fraught with 
events whose causes and effects definitely bear upon the 
development of our national life, it is difficult to compress 
into an average textbook the entire history without omit- 
ting interesting details that seemingly have a pertinent 
value, but whose relation to the whole is not necessary to 
the continuity of subject matter. For instance, picturesque 
stories of the early pioneers give dramatic interest and are 
valuable in that they reflect the struggles and hardships of 
the people to possess the land, and their self-sacrifice seems 
worthy of note ; but space will not permit extensive biog- 
raphy. There are, however, biographical studies in print 
that serve as supplementary references. Quotations from 
song and story are helpful also in vivifying certain events, 
but these too must, perforce, be limited. 

In the preparation of this text the author has endeavored 
to arrange the work so as to secure a consecutive story of 
the United States history. The subject matter has been 
organized into chapters and accompanying these are black- 
board outlines for convenient study. Topical questions 
and important facts are also given at the end of each 
chapter. Brief reference lists have been suggested. The 
text has been composed with the idea of grading the sub- 
ject matter so that it will meet the development of the 
students. 

ELEANOR E. RIGGS. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



I. Our Country 

II. A New Route to the Indies 

III. The Work of France 

IV. The English Explorations 
V. New England Colonies . 

VI. The Middle Colonies 

VII. The Struggle for Supremacy 

VIII. Social and Economic Conditions 
Revolution 

IX. The American Revolution 

X. The Revolution Begins 

XI. National Difficulties 

XII. The New Government 

XIII. Jeffersonian Democracy 

XIV. The War of 1812 
XV. The Era of Good Feeling 

XVI. An Era of Industrial Change 

XVII. The National Republicans a: 

Democrats .... 

XVIII. National Development . 

XIX. The Texas Revolution . 

XX. States 1 Rights a National Issue 

XXI. A New Confederacy 

XXII. The War between the States 

XXIII. Conditions in the South at the 

War 

XXIV. Reconstruction 

XXV. Grant's Second Administration 



BEFORE 



Close of 



acksoniax 



THE 



I 

40 

53 
79 
98 

113 

130 
150 
166 
205 
215 
228 
238 
250 
261 

271 
292 
3°3 
315 
333 
343 

390 
397 
409 



Vlll 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

XXVI. The New Era . . 419 

XXVII. National Problems 429 

XXVIII. An Era of Expansion 435 

XXIX. New Plans 449 

XXX. Strength of the American Nation . . . 463 

XXXI. A Century of Inventions 473 

XXXII. An Era of Expositions 482 

APPENDIX 487 

INDEX 511 



COLOR MAPS 

TO FACE PAGE 

Early Distribution of Indian Tribes ...... 4 

Medieval Trade Routes 5 

North America before the French and Indian War . . . 113 
North America after the French and Indian War. . . -130 
The Colonies at the Outbreak of the Revolution . . . .166 

The Purchase of Louisiana 230 

The United States 435 



LIST OF MAPS IN TEXT 



PAGE 



Relief Map of the United States 3 

Toscanelli's Map .......... 22 

Columbian Voyages ......... 28 

Spanish Explorations ........ 32 

Line of Demarcation ......... 37 

French Explorations ......... 41 

Roanoke Island and Chesapeake Bay ...... 60 

Charter of 1606 .......... 63 

Map of Hartford in the Seventeenth Century .... 86 

Maryland Settlements 104 

Scene of the Last French War 117 

Quebec (1774) 162 

Boston and Vicinity . . . . . . . . .170 

The Expedition to Canada and Washington's Line of March to 

New York 172 

The New York Campaign . . . . . . . 177 

Campaigns of 1777 in Northern New York . . . . .182 

The Revolution in the North 184 

The Western Country and the Route of George Rogers Clark . 196 

The Routes of the Lewis and Clark Expedition .... 234 

The Canadian Frontier ........ 242 

New Orleans and Vicinity 245 

Florida Boundary in 181 8 253 

Missouri^Compromise ......... 255 

The Mexican Campaign ........ 306 

The Compromise of 1850 . . . . . . . . 320 

Kansas and Nebraska (1854) 325 

Charleston Harbor ......... 338 

The Confederacy, May 1, 1861 343 

The Blockade of the Southern Coast 351 

The Lower Mississippi, showing the Campaign around Vicks- 

burg ........... 360 

The Peninsular Campaign ........ 366 

xi 



x ii LIST OF MAPS IN TEXT 

PAGE 

Gettysburg Battlefield — Last Day 374 

Sherman's March 3 ° 2 

Virginia Campaigns, 1862- 1865 3 4 

The Philippine Islands 439 

The Santiago Campaign 44* 



AN AMERICAN HISTORY 



AN AMERICAN HISTORY 



CHAPTER I 
OUR COUNTRY 

Location. — The United States occupies a central posi- 
tion among the countries of the world. To the north 
stretch the limits of Canada; on the east is the Atlantic 
Ocean, an open waterway to Europe ; at the south are 
Mexico and the Gulf of Mexico ; and, on the west, the wide 
Pacific extending to the Orient. While our country has 
the natural advantages of a central location, the vast oceans 
give it a certain independence and general freedom from 
the petty and incessant political and commercial struggles 
of both Europe and Asia. The wide stretches of sea water 
on the eastern and western shores were among the causes 
that led to the independent national life of the American 
people, and gave them security against easy invasion. 

When Columbus and the explorers of his day set sail 
from Europe to seek a western water route to the Indies, 
they had no expectation of discovering a new continent. 
They believed that the Atlantic Ocean probably extended 
to China and India, and, while they were prepared to meet 
new and unusual people in strange surroundings, they were 
not anticipating the discovery of a new world, peopled with 
an unknown race, and the knowledge that another ocean 
lay between this land and the far East. 

For many years the real extent of the United States 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



AMERICAN INDIANS 



Origin. — When the first Europeans came to the New 
World, they found a strange race of people living in this 
country who were unlike any people they had ever seen. 
Columbus called these people Indians because he thought 
that he had reached the islands off the shores of India. 
The Indians knew little of their own origin ; they had no 
written records, and the few traditions that they possessed 
were highly fanciful. They were an imaginative people 
who had many beautiful legends concerning the animals and 
plants about them, but there was little of reality about 
these stories, and to many of the Europeans they seemed 
vain and foolish. 

It is believed that the Indians were perhaps related to 
the Malay tribes who inhabit the islands of the Pacific, 
and that centuries ago they drifted in their little boats 
from one island to another until they reached the main- 
land. Or, perhaps, they were related to some of the Asiatic 
people and many years ago made their way across the Aleu- 
tian Islands and down the Pacific coast, slowly migrating 
by tribes into the southern and eastern districts of America. 

Distribution. — Whatever may have been their origin, 
tribes of Indians were scattered all over North and South 
America. The Aztecs of Mexico and the Peruvian Indians 
of South America had attained an advanced civilization 
that was far above that of the barbarous and savage In- 
dians of North America. These people had cities containing 
large temples and palaces. They cultivated the soil and 
practiced the art of mining and the use of metals. They 
were skilled in weaving cloth and making beautiful pottery. 
They had a regular form of government and a well-defined 
language. The remains of their palaces and temples show 
that their architecture was massive and that they must 
have understood the use of many tools. The Natchez 



OUR COUNTRY 



Indians, of the Mississippi Valley, were the most highly 
civilized of the natives found in North America. Like the 
Aztecs, they understood the art of building. They also 
had a regular form of government. 

There were numerous tribes of Indians that were found in 
this country, but the most important were the Algonquins, 
who were scattered by 
families from Labrador 
to Virginia. The Nar- 
ragansetts of New Eng- 
land and the Powhatans 
of Virginia were of this 
group. In New York 
lived the famous Iro- 
quois, who were com- 
posed of five nations. 
South of the Ohio were 
the Creeks, Cherokees, 
Chickasaws, and Semi- 
noles. On the gulf coast 
the Choctaws and the 
Mobilians were found. 
West of the Mississippi 
were innumerable tribes, 
the chief of whom were 

the Sioux, the Dakotas, and the Shoshones. On the 
Pacific coast lived the Modocs, the Klamaths, and many 
others. 

Appearance. — The Indians, as a race, have been called 
the Red Men, because many of them had dark reddish 
brown or copper-colored complexions. There were found 
in some of the tribes, however, natives who were almost 
black and others who were fair in appearance. They in- 
variably had long, straight, black hair, black eyes, and high 
cheek bones. Their expression was serious and they were 




An American Indian. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



dignified and reserved in manner. With strangers they 
appeared shy and talked but little. Many of the men 
were tall, slender, and erect in form, although there were 
types who were low and stocky in stature. The women 
were generally stouter than the men. 

Mode of Life. — The Indians lived in families and these 
in turn, through certain relationships, formed tribes. 

Sometimes, for pro- 
' 7 ^i ; »5£^ tection, a group of 

^^^^^^%u:Mm4. tribes would or s an - 

ize a confederacy. 
The tribe was gov- 
erned by a council 
of the elders who 
elected a sachem, or 
chief, and a medi- 
cine man, or priest. 
Indian boys were 
carefully reared in 
order that they 
might become 
strong warriors. 
When they were 
still infants, care 
was taken to mas- 
sage them regularly 
with bear's grease 
so that their mus- 
cles would be well developed and supple. They were 
not allowed to stand alone until they were quite 
strong. When boys and girls had reached the age of 
three years they both were taught to swim. As the boys 
grew older they were taught to make their own weapons 
and to hunt and fish; the girls were taught to prepare 
the food. 




An Indian Town. 



OUR COUNTRY 7 

The Indians had no regular occupations, but simply 
lived an idle, free existence, securing sufficient food to 
support them and learning the art of war for defense. 
They were well acquainted with the habits of all the birds 
and animals in the forests and knew the medicinal value 
of certain plants and trees that grew about them. 

They were much impressed with some of the things that 
the Europeans brought to this country, but they were not 
prone to give up their mode of life for the new ideas. They 
believed that the land belonged to every one, and they could 
not understand the white man's custom of individual 
ownership of land. This brought on many conflicts between 
the two races. We are told that they were often kind and 
considerate in their manner toward the Europeans, and 
that it was largely through their hospitality that many of 
the early settlers were saved from starvation. 

Food. — The food of the Indians was simple and easily 
prepared. If they killed a deer or buffalo, they skinned 
the animal and cut up and distributed the meat among 
the tribe. The flesh was then roasted over the fire and 
eaten with parched corn. If there was more meat than 
could be used at one time, the remainder was stripped and 
dried. Later, when it was needed, it was pounded into 
small bits, then mixed with cornmeal and bear's fat and 
made into balls that were wrapped in corn shucks and baked 
in hot ashes. Maize, or Indian corn, was the chief article 
of food. It grew all over the country, and the Indians 
always laid by a supply of this cereal for winter use. It 
was said that they could exist for days on no other food but 
a little parched corn and water. 

They were very fond of fish, and frequently caught them 
in nets made of grasses. Sometimes they would harpoon 
a fish by striking it from the bank of a stream. The 
Southern Indians usually cooked the fish, after cleaning it, 
by wrapping it in bay leaves and then covering this with 



S . AMERICAN HISTORY 

soft clay, after which they placed it on a bed of hot coals 
to bake. When it was done, the covering was removed 
and the fish was found to be deliciously tender with all the 
juices perfectly retained. 

Clothing. — The clothing of the Indians was very meager. 
The women wore short skirts of skin or coarsely woven 
cloth, and the men wore scanty garments of skin ; usually 
their limbs and chests were exposed. Sometimes for pro- 
tection they wore soft skin shoes called moccasins. On 
formal occasions the chief of a tribe would wear a large skin 
mantle, but as a rule, the only distinguishing mark between 
the chief and his braves was the number of feathers that he 
wore in his headdress. When the Indians went to war, 
they painted their faces so as to appear as hideous as 
possible and thus frighten their enemy. 

Houses. — For the most part the Indians lived in wig- 
wams made of light poles that were covered with skins. 
These tents could be taken down quickly and removed easily 
from place to place. In some localities the Indians made 
huts of sun-dried bricks as did the Mandan Indians of 
Dakota, and the Natchez in the Mississippi Valley. The 
Iroquois of New York constructed what was called the 
long house, in which a number of rooms were arranged so 
that several families could be accommodated. This was 
built as a means of protection. 

Warfare. — The Indians were quick to resent an injury 
and to avenge any wrong to themselves or their tribe. 
There were many occasions of petty differences among the 
tribes so that the Indians were always, in a sense, prepared 
for war. Their weapons consisted of a bow and arrow and 
a tomahawk ; the tomahawk was a short-handled stone 
hatchet. Sometimes they used clubs made from the heavy 
roots of trees. They were very often cruel to their war 
captives and tortured their enemies. When they carried 
on warfare against the whites they frequently made a mid- 




OUR COUNTRY q 

night attack which usually resulted in the massacre of all 
their victims. As they, in time, became friendly with 
the Europeans, the Indians often became allies of their 
white neighbors, and assisted them in their attacks on 
other nations. The his- 
tory of America is replete 
with instances of their 
warfare. 

Religion. — The religion 
of the Indians was filled 
with strange superstitions. 
They believed in good and 
evil spirits and attributed 
their misfortunes in war, 
their bodily ailments, and Weapons of War ' 

failures of their crops to the evil spirits. In order to ap- 
pease the wrath of these unfriendly forces, they would 
often do many queer and unreasonable things. Their re- 
ligious service consisted of solemn dances that were 
executed by the priests and their attendants. All the 
movements were symbolical. The dancers often became 
exhausted by the strenuous exercise. 

The Indians believed in the immortality of the soul. 
They pictured that after death they would take up their 
new life in a fair and " happy hunting ground " where there 
were no enemies, no famine, and no distress ; however, 
they fancied that the future existence would be similar to 
this one and that they should possibly need many things 
used in this life. In order to meet these needs it was cus- 
tomary to inter with the dead his weapons, his favorite 
dog, and other things that had been his cherished posses- 
sions. Their faith made them realize the virtue of justice 
and the knowledge of right and wrong in dealing with each 
other. They were singularly honest in their exchange with 
each other and were truthful in their statements. To the 



IO 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Europeans they seemed a strange and childlike people and 
were often misunderstood and abused. When the Indians 
discovered that an advantage had been taken of them they 
became suspicious and revengeful. 

Arts and Crafts. — The Indians were skilled in the arts 
of basketry and pottery. Their designs were simple and 
conventional in form, and their colors were dull, but 




An Indian Dance. 

beautiful and harmonious in arrangement. They used 
grasses and split reed canes for their baskets and made 
their dyes from leaves and bark of trees. Sometimes they 
lined and covered their baskets with clay, thus making 
them water-tight. Among their most interesting inven- 
tions were snowshoes, with which they could make long 
journeys over the heavy snows. 

Money. — Their money consisted of polished sea shells 
that were strung like beads. This was called wampum 
and was used in exchange for many things. Certain shells 



OUR COUNTRY 



II 



were very highly prized and sometimes the Indians 
make long journeys to the seaside to secure them, 
turquoise was valued by the Indians of 
New Mexico and used as a medium of 
exchange. When the Europeans saw 
the delight of the savages in these 
things, they brought over many bright- 
colored beads and trinkets, and these 
served as a means of securing trade 
with the Indians. Later European 
blankets and goods attracted the In- 
dians, and these were readily taken in 
exchange for furs. 



would 
The 



THE NORSEMEN 




Indian Money. 



Early Norse Explorations. — Far away 
toward the north there is a little island in the Atlantic that 
is called Iceland. It is very small indeed, but it has an 
interesting history and is the home of a wide-awake, pro- 
gressive people. The first white people who visited North 
America came from Iceland, and the story of their coming 
is as follows : 

In the ninth century, when Harold Fairhair became 
the king of Norway, a great political revolution took 
place in opposition to his rule. Many of the nobles of 
Norway left the country and went to different parts of 
Europe, and a number sailed to Iceland and made this 
their home. This latter settlement proved successful, and, 
as conditions were agreeable, other Norsemen came to Ice- 
land and formed permanent settlements. Their history of 
this time is more or less vague and is recorded in sagas or 
songs sung by their skalds or gleemen. It is from these 
and certain old chronicles that we learn the story of their 
visits to America. 



12 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Norse Explorers. — We are told that one day a terrible 
storm drove the boat of a Norse captain, named Gunnbjorn, 
to the coast of Greenland and there it was locked in ice 
until the spring, when Gunnbjorn and his men were finally 
released. They returned to their home in Iceland and told 
of the new land across the sea. Shortly after this, a man 
named Eric, the Red, who lived in Ice- 
land, committed a murder and was 
banished from the country. Eric took a 
few followers and left his home to find 
the land that Gunnbjorn had discovered. 
He reached Greenland and sailed up a 
little bay until he came to a pleasant 
grassy plain, and there he established his 
new abode. He called the country 
Greenland, for he thought, " This pretty 
name will surely bring others here to 
five." Later on, Eric went back to Ice- 
land and brought over a colony of people 
who settled permanently. Others came 
over and gradually formed several little 
settlements in the country. 

Some time after this, Eric's son, Leif, 
the Lucky, who had become a Christian, determined to 
seek his father and tell him the story of the Gospel. 
Leif came to Greenland and after preaching the mes- 
sage started for the mainland to seek the heathen who 
were scattered along the shores. He reached the coast 
of what is now Labrador and called the country Slate- 
land. He then continued his voyage until he came to 
a region that was heavily wooded and this he called 
Markland or woodland. After a short stay at this place, 
Leif went farther south until he and his hardy seamen 
found a pleasant land where plenty of wild grapes grew, 
and to this new country he gave the name of Vinland. 




A Norse Sea King. 



OUR COUNTRY 



13 



This was perhaps the coast of New England or New 
Jersey. Leif spent the winter here and in the spring 
returned to Greenland 
with a load of timber. 
Later another company 
led by Leif 's brother made 
a settlement in New Eng- 
land, but these men fell 
into great difficulty with 
the natives ; some of the 
Norsemen were killed, and 
the others returned to 
Greenland. 

From time to time other 
attempts were made by 
the Norsemen to visit the 
new country, but no suc- 
cessful settlements were 

. A Norse Ship. 

made. By the time of 

Columbus's great voyage to the New World, there was 

little remembered of the land across the sea. 




II. 





Topical Outline 


Our Country. 


1. 


Location. 


2. 


Natural Advantages. 


Arr 


lerican Indians. 


1. 


Origin. 


2. 


Distribution. 


3- 


Appearance. 


4. 


Mode of Life. 


5- 


Food. 


6. 


Clothing. 


7- 


Houses. 


8. 


Warfare. 


9- 


Religion. 



14 AMERICAN HISTORY 

10. Arts and Crafts. 
ii. Money. 
III. The Norsemen. 

i. Early Norse Explorations. 

2. Norsemen Visit the New World. 



Review Questions 

i. Locate the United States, giving the general boundaries. 

2. What are some of the natural advantages of this country? 

3. How have the climate and resources of the United States aided 
in its development ? 

4. What is the supposed origin of the Indians? 

5. How did they receive their name ? 

6. Name and locate the principal tribes. 

7. Describe the appearance of the Indians. 

8. Give an account of their mode of life. 

9. What do you know of their government and religion ? 

10. Locate Norway, Iceland, Greenland, Labrador. 

1 1 . Who were the first Europeans to visit America ? 

12. Were these explorations important in history? 

References 

Brigham : Geographic Influences in American History. 

Semple : American History and Its Geographic Influences. 

Coman : Industrial History of United States. (The Indians.) 

Drake : American Indians. 

Starr : The American Indians. 

Gayarre: History of Louisiana, Vol. I. (Natchez Indians.) (The 

Norsemen.) 
Fiske : Discovery of America, Vol. I. 
Lilenjenzcrantz : The Thrall of Leif the Lucky. 



CHAPTER II 



A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 

Influences on Exploration: Commerce. — Many centuries 
ago China, Japan, India, and Egypt were the most highly 
civilized countries in the world. In all these countries 
great wealth of natural resources was found, and the 
people who lived there were skilled in 
many of the modern industries; such 
as weaving, mining, and building. 
They wove beautiful fabrics of silk 
and cotton ; they cut and polished 
rare gems ; they manufactured valu- 
able medicines and rich perfumes; 
and they furnished many other use- 
ful and attractive articles to com- 
merce. 

Religion. — The extent of this trade 
was unknown to the western people 
until the eleventh century, when a 
new interest attracted the Europeans 
to the East. This was the Holy 
Wars or Crusades, led by the Chris- 
tian nations against the Turks who were overrunning 
Palestine. A report had been brought to Italy that the 
city of Jerusalem had been captured and that many sacred 
places were desecrated. This news stirred all Christendom, 
and kings and nobles led armies across Europe to overcome 
the Turks. 




A Crusader. 



15 



i6 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Trade with the Far East. — As the Crusaders made their 
way toward Asia Minor they came in contact with new 
phases of life and commerce. Some of these soldiers saw the 
advantage of opening up trade with the far East. As time 
passed on trading privileges were secured that served as a 
link to hold the trade of Europe and Asia together. As 
years went by the people of Europe learned to depend upon 
their eastern neighbors for many luxuries as well as necessi- 
ties of life. The merchants of Italy were especially active 




Camels on the Desert. 



in carrying on this trade, and some of the Italian cities 
became distributing points for oriental goods. 

Trade Routes. — The merchants of Europe were ac- 
quainted with three important trade routes extending from 
the far East to the West. The first was by way of the 
Indian Ocean, Red Sea, across to the Nile River, and thence 
to Cairo. This was known as the southern or sea route. 
It was estimated that at one time in the fifteenth century, 
in Cairo, thirty-six thousand boats were owned and em- 
ployed in this trade. Not far from this city was Alex- 
andria, the largest spice market in the world. 

The second route started from Asia Minor on the Medi- 
terranean Sea and extended across Arabia to the Persian 



A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 1 7 

Gulf, and thence to India and China. This was partly a 
caravan, and partly a boat, system. The third, north of 
this, extended from Constantinople along the Black Sea to 
Astrakan, then by the Caspian Sea to Afganistan, and across 
northern India, Tartary, and China. (See map.) 

Effects of the Fall of Constantinople. — In the latter 
part of the thirteenth century, this active trade was dis- 
turbed by the rise of a people known as the Ottoman Turks. 
These Turks began to conquer one section after another 
until they finally succeeded in capturing the great city of 
Constantinople, in 1453. This city was the key to Europe 
and Asia and its fall was a serious interruption to the 
eastern trade. At this time the people of Europe had be- 
come more wealthy and were living in greater luxury than 
before. They had become accustomed to the use of such 
goods as dyes, gums, spices, pepper, perfumes, oriental 
medicines, carpets, silks, jewels, and other eastern wares ; 
and they keenly felt the loss of these. Moreover, this de- 
cline in trade was felt throughout Europe, and many com- 
mercial firms became bankrupt. Hence an earnest desire 
was felt to renew the trade with the East, and efforts were 
made to secure a new and permanent route to the Indies. 

The fall of Constantinople had a more profound effect 
upon Europe than the interruption of eastern trade. This 
city had been built by the Roman Emperor, Constantine, 
as the eastern capital of the great empire, and in the cen- 
turies that followed it became a center of Greek influence 
and was renowned for its learning. When the Turks took 
the city, many scholars were forced to leave ; and some of 
them went to Italy, taking their valuable manuscripts with 
them. Welcomed by the scholars of this country and 
aided by wealthy Italians, they were able to establish 
schools. This gave a new impetus to education, and the 
new learning, as it was called, revived many ideas of the 
ancient Greeks. The movement is known in history as 



1 8 AMERICAN HISTORY 

the Renaissance, or new birth, and it influenced all phases 
of life. The Greek ideals made the literature of this period 
more attractive ; architecture, painting, and sculpture, 
more beautiful ; scientific branches of learning, like medicine 
and chemistry, more practical. They made old supersti- 
tions about the stars give way to the truthful study of 
astronomy ; and men began a scientific study of the geog- 
raphy of the world. 

At this time a number of Italian seamen made accurate 
maps of the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea, of the Atlan- 
tic from Cape Nun to the Baltic, and of the Red Sea to the 
eastern shores of Africa. These charts were reliable and 
of practical use to the mariners of the time. It was in 
Italy that the compass and the astrolabe came into use, and 
it was the Italian cities with their well-organized merchant 
gilds that were active in promoting scientific navigation. 
It was from this country that some of the most renowned 
explorers were to come. 

This last phase of the Renaissance movement stimulated 
men to become bolder on the sea and quickened in many 
seamen the spirit of adventure and investigation. 

THE WORK OF PORTUGAL 

Scientific Investigation in Portugal. — Portugal was one 
of the most active countries in this work. As early as 
1419, Prince Henry of Portugal opened a nautical school 
near Lisbon where a scientific study of geography was 
begun. Here a number of trained seamen and learned 
men gathered and began making voyages out on the Atlan- 
tic. They experimented with the mariner's compass and 
the astrolabe, an instrument for taking the altitude of the 
sun and stars. Jewish and Arabian mathematicians were 
employed to instruct these students, and every effort was 
made to secure accurate and scientific information. This 



A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 



19 



work continued for many years under Prince Henry's 
nephew, King Alfonso V-, and, later, under King John II. 

Through their 
efforts the Madeira, 
Canary, Cape Verde, 
and Azores islands 
were discovered, 
but the Portuguese 
were more attracted 
to the coast of Af- 
rica than to the 
open Atlantic. And 
for more than forty 
years one expedi- 
tion after another 
was sent in this di- 
rection, resulting in 
the exploration of 
the whole western 
coast of Africa as 
far south as the 
Cape of Good Hope, 
so called because this seemed a real hope of securing the 
new route to the Indies. 

Portuguese Explorers. — Among the explorers who 
should be remembered was Martin Behaim of Nuremberg, 
Germany, who was sent by Portugal on 
a number of voyages to the coast of Af- 
rica and who made many charts and 
maps of the known world. He also con- 
structed a small globe illustrating his 
belief in the rotundity of the earth. 
Another great name is that of Barthol- 
omew Diaz, who discovered Cape o( Good Hope. He set 
out to India, but he was obliged to return because his 




Henry the Navigator. 




Mariner's Compass. 



20 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



men mutinied. Ten years later Diaz's work was accom- 
plished by Vasco da Gama, who finally reached India. A 
little later, the regular trade with the far East was secured 
by Albuquerque, who organized an East India trading 
company and established trade settlements in Burma, 
China, and Japan. 

COLUMBUS 

Early Life. — But the greatest man among those who 
came under the Portuguese influence was Christopher 

Columbus. His broth- 
er, Ferdinand Colum- 
bus, wrote: "It was in 
Portugal that the Ad- 
miral (Christopher Co- 
lumbus) began to sur- 
mise that if men could 
sail so far south, one 
might sail west and find 
land in that direction." 
All the facts of the 
early life of Colum- 
bus are not definitely 
known, but it is be- 
lieved that he was born 
in Genoa in the year 




Christopher Columbus. 



1446. The quaint old 
tenement house where it 
is supposed that Columbus was born is still standing in 
Genoa. This city was an important manufacturing seaport 
and one of the chief commercial centers in Italy. Columbus's 
father was a humble woolworker, but his uncle was a sea 
captain of some renown. As late as 1472, Columbus signed 
a document in Genoa, in which he gave his occupation as 
a " woolworker of Genoa." From other sources, we learn 



A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 



21 



that he frequently went to sea as a regular sailor, and that 
he had voyaged as far south as the coast of Guinea, and 
as far north as Iceland. During all these years, " he was 
educated in the whole art of navigation." 

Education. — Columbus attended the common school of 
Genoa and it is probable that he took some advanced work 
in the University of Pavia. We know from his letters that 
he could write excellently in Italian and Spanish and that 
he read Latin easily. He was acquainted with mapmaking 
and read closely the geographical works of his day. On 
the margins of many of 
his books were carefully 
made notes pertaining 
to geography and as- 
tronomy. 

Perhaps the work that 
interested him most was 
a book known as The 
Travels of Marco Polo. 
This was a description 
written by Marco Polo 
of his visit to India and 
China, in the thirteenth 
century, which gave an 
interesting, but some- 
what inaccurate, ac- 
count of the far eastern 
countries. It was the 
most reliable information of that part of the world in that 
day, and was accepted as a very valuable work. It gave 
the correct latitude of the Indies and the proper geograph- 
ical relations of India to China, and China to Cipango 
(Japan). It also described the people of the Orient as 
dark complexioned, with straight, black hair and dark eyes. 

Many maps were made from Marco Polo's statements 




Marco Polo. 



22 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



about the geography of India, and among these was one 
by a Florentine physician, Toscanelli. This shows the 
Atlantic Ocean washing the shores of China and Japan, 
and gives an idea of the rotundity of the earth. That is, 
if one sailed west from Europe, he would reach first the 
island of Japan, then Cathay (China), then by overland 
travel, India, Arabia, etc., until he again reached Europe. 
Hence, a direct route to the Indies was evidently a water 




TOSCANELLI'S MAP ; DRAWN FROM HIS DESCRIPTION. 



route toward the west. No one dreamed that a great 
American continent and a vast Pacific Ocean lay between 
Japan and the western parts of Europe. 

Marriage. — Columbus was familiar with the Mediter- 
ranean sea trade and had engaged in the encounters with 
the Turks. He went to Portugal as a sailor, and in Lisbon 
married Felipa Moniz, a relative of Bartholomew Peres- 
trello, one of Prince Henry's navigators. Through this 
marriage Columbus came into possession of many valuable 
charts, maps, and notes that had belonged toPerestrello. 
Columbus was a most thoughtful student and made every 
effort to prove his belief in the theory that the earth was 



A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 23 

round and that India could be reached by sailing west 
from Europe. He wrote to Toscanelli about his ideas and 
it is thought that the latter replied and sent Columbus a 
copy of his map. 

Efforts to Gain Assistance. — Finally, Columbus began 
to try to interest people in a practical way so as to carry 
out his enterprise. He applied to the Board of Trade of 
Genoa and asked them to assist in fitting out an expedition 
for the experiment, but they refused. He then went back 
to Portugal to seek assistance, but King John referred his 
plan to certain learned men, who treated the idea lightly. 
After spending seven years in Portugal, Columbus left for 
Spain, while his brother Bartholomew, a well-known chart 
maker, went to England. He returned too late to give 
Columbus assistance. 

It was by the earnest efforts of Juan Perez, a former 
confessor of Queen Isabella, and also through the appeals 
of the treasurer of Aragon, that the sovereigns of Spain 
were influenced and finally consented to give the desired 
help, at the time when Columbus had about abandoned 
hope, and was planning to appeal to the King of France. 

Definite Plans for First Voyage. — On April 17, 1492, 
Columbus made a contract with Ferdinand and Isabella 
in which an agreement was made that " in return for what 
he should discover in the Ocean Sea, he should be made 
admiral of all these islands and mainlands which should be 
discovered or acquired through his agency, with all the pre- 
rogatives belonging to the dignity of admiral of Castile; 
that he should be made viceroy and governor-general of all 
said islands and mainlands ; and that from all the trade 
within the limits of the said district, he should receive a 
royalty of ten per cent of all the net proceeds." This 
shows that it was a business-like agreement and not a mere 
voyage for chance discovery. 

Isabella's chief motive for giving assistance was un- 



24 



AMERICAN HISTORY 




A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 



25 



doubtedly the purpose of extending the Christian faith. 
Spain at this time was one of the leading nations in Europe ; 
her possessions included not only the country of Spain, 
but an extensive domain in Italy and the Netherlands ; 
and she was perhaps better prepared to undertake the work 
than any other country. 

The Voyage of Discovery. — On August 12, 1492, Colum- 
bus left Palos, Spain, with a fleet of three vessels. The 



"1 




II ,^& 


i 


1 i 




.. § 




1 . 






"^F>- 


^^ 


~ ». nwtfiih. > 






9 T**^'""; 










^ 



The Fleet of Columbus. 



Santa Maria was the flagship, and the other two were the 
iWw-a and the Pinta. There were about one hundred and 
ninety sailors and landsmen. Among the men were three 



26 AMERICAN HISTORY 

excellent sailors and navigators known as the Pinzon 
brothers, who had contributed the Pinta. The fleet sailed 
directly for the Canaries, and there spent one month in 
refitting the Pinta; then it made the final start on Thurs- 
day, the sixth of September. 

For days and days they sailed toward the west without 
seeing a trace of land. Columbus kept a daily record of the 
voyages, and a hard record it was. His men grew weary 
of the sea and the monotonous food, and they began to 
mutiny. Then Columbus was obliged to keep two records, 
one giving the true distance they had sailed, and the other 
showing a limited distance, so as to reassure the sailors. 
It was only with the greatest courage and calmness that 
Columbus was able to persuade them not to be alarmed. 

Finally, on the evening of the eleventh of October, lights 
were seen in the distance. All night the watch was kept ; 
at dawn the next morning the faint outlines of the tall 
palms on the distant shores were seen ; and, in a little while, 
the boats' were nearing the unknown lands. All through 
the voyage, Columbus states that never once did his faith 
waver. He felt sure that God would lead them aright, 
and as he stepped ashore with the priests, soldiers, and 
sailors, and offered up a prayer of thanksgiving, he must 
have felt as the poet who wrote : 

" I know not where His Islands lift 
Their fronded palms in air, 
I only know, I cannot drift 
Beyond His love and care." 

After exploring the near-by islands, Columbus concluded 
that he had reached the islands off the coast of India, and, 
noting the dark skin and straight, black hair of the natives, 
he called them Indians, believing them to be similar to the 
people whom Marco Polo had described. 

The Indians indicated that they had a great ruler living 



A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 



27 



on the island (Cuba). When Columbus reached this shore 
he sent his Jewish interpreter, Luis de Torres, to the ruler 
to make a treaty. Here he found a little village of small 
huts occupied by naked savages, many of whom were 
" drawing the smoke through the leaves of a plant which 
were rolled in the form of a tube and lighted at one end." 




The Landing of Columbus. 



The Spaniards learned for the first time that these tubes 
were called tobaccos. 

Columbus next discovered the island of Hayti, which he 
named Hispaniola. It was here that the Santa Maria 
was wrecked. The Indians were kind and honest in help- 
ing the sailors to save the cargo of provisions. At the place 
a colony was begun and forty-four men volunteered to 
remain. Among these were artisans, a " good gunner, a 
physician, and a tailor." Columbus left flour and wine for 
a year, seed for sowing, tools, and arms. He enjoined 



28 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



them to obey their captain, to make friends with the 
natives, and to avoid injuring any one. 

The remainder of the company sailed for home and 
reached the coast of Portugal on March 8, 1493 . Colum- 
bus took occasion to remind King John that he had lost a 
great opportunity in not accepting the privilege of patroniz- 
ing the expedition, and then sailed for Palos, reaching 




there on March 15, 1493. All of the population gave an 
enthusiastic welcome to the voyagers. 

Columbus made a report of his voyages to King Ferdi- 
nand and Queen Isabella, who were delighted with his 
success. Many became interested in the new discoveries, 
and Columbus had little trouble in planning another 
expedition. 

The Second Voyage of Discovery. — On September 25, 
1493, Columbus set sail on his second voyage. The expedi- 
tion cost thirty-five thousand dollars, and consisted of seven- 



A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 29 

teen ships bearing soldiers, missionaries, artisans of all 
kinds, field laborers, knights, and courtiers. They took 
with them horses, cows, sheep, vegetables, and cereals. " At 
the Canary Islands they added to their stock calves, she- 
goats, ewes, pigs, chickens, seeds of oranges, lemons, melons, 
and other garden plants, and, most important of all, sugar 
cane." 

When Columbus reached the settlement at La Navidad, 
on the island of Hayti, not one of the settlers could be found. 
It was supposed that they had perished during the months 
that had passed. Columbus erected a more permanent fort, 
and made preparations to spend the winter. Sickness 
prevailed among the colonists and many died. On this 
voyage, Columbus made the discovery of Jamaica and some 
lesser islands. 

After spending three years in the New World, he re- 
turned to Spain, brought his report of the discoveries 
to Ferdinand and Isabella, and urged the settlement of the 
new lands. It was difficult to secure colonists, so the 
sovereigns issued an order to the officers of the prisons of 
Spain that certain criminals were to be transported to the 
New World. 

The Third Voyage. — Then Columbus set out on his 
third voyage, and, on July 31, 1498, he sighted the main- 
land of South America, near the Orinoco River. 

Columbus's brother, Bartholomew, had been in charge 
of affairs in Cuba and the West Indies, and his rule was 
harsh and unpopular. Columbus had great difficulty in 
trying to settle the disputes, and he, too, was severely 
blamed. Many of the settlers were ill and discontented 
and they made serious charges against Columbus. He 
and his brother were put in prison by the new governor 
who had been appointed over the island. 

In 1500 Columbus returned to Spain, weary and dis- 
couraged. When the king and queen heard of the condi- 



30 AMERICAN HISTORY 

tions in the colony, they forgave Columbus and restored 
him to favor, but many of the people believed that he had 
wasted the public funds and that his work had not been a 
success. 

The Fourth Voyage. — Two years later he succeeded in 
making another voyage which is called the fourth. This 
time he discovered the shore of Central America and some 
small islands, but he failed to find the India which he so 
earnestly sought. When he returned to Spain in 1504, 
after devoting twelve years to the work, he still believed 
that he had reached the shores of India and China, and 
did not realize that he had discovered a New World, which 
was to become in time greater than Spain or India. After 
many hardships, Columbus died in extreme poverty in the 
city of Valladolid, Spain. 

To-day as we look into the records of the time and read 
of his wonderful plans, his fine common sense, his loyalty 
and faith, we are impressed with his courage, his noble 
character, and his splendid achievement; and we realize 
why Columbus is ranked as one of the greatest characters 
in history. 

SPAIN'S CLAIM IN THE NEW WORLD 

Vespucci. — While Columbus was making his voyages, 
other explorers began to seek the route to the Indies and 
to discover new lands. One of these explorers, who sailed 
under the flag of Spain, was an Italian named Amerigo 
Vespucci. He made four voyages, explored the coast of 
Central and South America, and wrote an interesting 
account of his expeditions. These letters were printed in 
Germany, and the publisher, Martin Waldseemuller, in a 
preface to the work, wrote " the fourth part of the globe, 
which since Americus discovered it, may be called Amerige — 
Americ's land or America." Thus the New World received 



A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 



31 




Amerigo Vespucci. 



the name of America in- 
stead of Columbus. For 
many years, however, it 
was simply known as 
Mundus Novus or New 
World. 

Magellan. — Another 
explorer of wide experi- 
ence during this period 
was Magellan, a Portu- 
guese, who also sailed 
under the flag of Spain. <£ 
When Magellan came 
into the presence of the 
king of Spain, he had in 
his hand a " well-painted 
globe on which the whole 
world was depicted, and on it he indicated the route he pro- 
posed to take." And thus it came to pass that he crossed 

the Atlantic, coasted 
by the shores of South 
America, entered the 
straits of Magellan, and 
set his fleet toward the 
Pacific Ocean. After 
many days of constant 
sailing, Magellan finally 
reached the Ladrone 
and the Philippine Is- 
lands and claimed these 
for Spain. On one of 
these islands, Magellan 
was killed by a native. 
His crew, led by Sebas- 
Magellan. tian del Cano, passed 








L$2 



3- 1 



A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 



33 



by the shores of India and Africa and, at last, after an 
absence of three years, arrived at Seville, numbering but 
thirty-one of the two hundred and seventy that had sailed. 
This voyage marked the first circumnavigation of the 
globe, and del Cano was granted a coat of arms bearing 
this motto : " First thou didst encompass me " (1522). 

Colony of Havana. — The first land claimed by Spain 
was the West India islands, and here on the island of Cuba 




Balboa's First Sight of the Pacific Ocean. 

was established an important colonial base known as 
Havana. From this city, as well as from Spain, many 
expeditions were sent out to discover the unknown lands. 
We are told that hundreds of official permits were given 
by the Spanish government to explorers, but we shall 
mention only those whose work gave Spain her greatest 
claim. 

Balboa. — In the year 151 2 Balboa sailed from the 
islands and reached the mainland at the Isthmus of Panama ; 



34 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



and, scaling the mountains, he came in sight of the Pacific 
Ocean, which he took in the name of Spain. 

Ponce de Leon. — In the year that Balboa made his 
claim to the Pacific, Ponce de Leon, Spanish governor of 
Hayti, sought the famous fountain of youth of Bimine, 
believing that its waters would restore his youth and 
strength. On this quest, de Leon discovered the mainland 
of North America in the locality of Florida. After making 




St. Augustine, Florida. 
From a very early print. 

several attempts to go into the interior, de Leon was slain 
by the natives. For many years Spain claimed all the 
mainland as far north as Labrador, calling the entire dis- 
trict Florida. 

Gomez and d'Allyon. — Other explorers who confirmed 
Spain's claim to this region were Gomez and d'Allyon, 
who coasted along the Atlantic shores and returned favor- 
able reports of the land. 

Cortez. — Spain made very little attempt to settle this 
region, as her attention at this time was drawn toward 



A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 35 

Mexico, where Hernando Cortez made a most remarkable 
conquest of the wealthy Aztec Indians and by this rich 
addition to Spain's claim proved the vast amount of gold 
and silver that could be found in the New World. After 
the reports of Cortez' s success were spread abroad, many 
explorers now attempted to get into the mainland and 
search for gold. 

Coronado and Cabrillo. — Among those who went far 
into the interior of the country were Hernando de Coro- 
nado, who explored Kansas and Nebraska and reported 
this region as a fine farming district, and Cabrillo, who 
explored the coast of California (1540). 

Pizarro. — About the time of Cortez's success another 
soldier of fortune, Pizarro, reached the mainland of South 
America near the Isthmus of Panama, and, crossing the 
mountains, entered Peru, a region rich in gold and precious 
stones (1523). Pizarro was most cruel to the natives, but 
he gave untold wealth to Spain from this claim. 

De Soto. — De Soto, who had been in Peru with Pizarro, 
and had much experience in both explorations and con- 
quest, undertook a memorable enterprise in trying to seek 
the famous cities of Cibola, supposed to be " exceedingly 
rich and very wonderful to behold." Leaving Spain with 
an army of rive hundred horsemen and many skilled 
mechanics, De Soto came by way of Havana to the shores 
of Florida near Tampa Bay. Here he disembarked and 
made his way along the shore and thence into the interior 
of the country through Alabama and Georgia. Turning 
westward, De Soto passed through the land of the Chicka- 
saws and Natchez, and reached the shores of the great river 
of North America, called by the Indians Mississippi (Father 
of Waters) (1 539-1 540). 

This was near the present site of Memphis. Here De 
Soto and his followers built rafts, floated down a little 
distance, and then crossed. They had lost many men and 



36 AMERICAN HISTORY 

had suffered extreme hardships from the Indians. They 
rested through the severe winter season, and in the early 
spring began their march into the interior of Arkansas. 
They heard of the vast plains beyond teeming with buffalo, 
but they did not see any of the herds. Weary and ill, De 
Soto turned toward the south and entered the Red River, 
which he followed until he reached the point where it flows 




De Soto discovering the Mississippi River. 

into the Mississippi. Here the brave commander became 
extremely ill with fever and died. The Indians had looked 
upon this courageous soldier as a superior being, and De 
Soto's followers, fearing to let the Indians know of his death, 
buried his body in the great river that he had discovered 
and named Espiritu Santo (Holy Spirit) (1540). 

Out of the six hundred and twenty persons who had 
started with De Soto, but three hundred and eleven sur- 
vived, and these, led by Luis de Moscoso, built rafts and 
drifted down the Mississippi, still beset by hostile Indians 
and suffering from a lack of sufficient food, until they 



A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 



37 



finally reached the gulf and made their way to the city 
of Mexico. This expedition stands out in history as one 
of the most daring and perilous exploits undertaken in 
those old heroic days. 

Spanish Claims. — By these and other discoveries Spain 
claimed all of South America except Brazil, Central America, 
Mexico, and all of what is now known as the United States, 
besides the islands and seas along these coasts. 

Line of Demarcation. — King John of Portugal was con- 
vinced that Columbus had merely made new explorations 
within Portugal's claim on the 
Guinea Coast. Accordingly a 
dispute arose between Spain and 
Portugal. As it was customary 
to refer such issues to the Pope, 
he was asked to decide this 
question. He did so by issuing 
an edict in which Portugal was 
given all of the heathen lands 
east of an imaginary line that 
was drawn three hundred and 
seventy leagues west of the Cape 
Verde Islands, and Spain was 
granted all of the lands to the 
west, except the kingdom of the 
great Khan. This gave Brazil 
to Portugal because the line of demarcation, as it was 
called, fell across South America at this place. Later, a 
Portuguese captain, named Cabral, who was on his way 
to India by way of the African coast, had his vessels driven 
westward by heavy winds, and reached the shore of Brazil 
and explored the country, thus reconfirming Portugal's 
claim (1504). 




38 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Topical Outline 

A New Route to the Indies. 
I. Influences on Exploration, 
i. Commerce. 

2. Religion. 

3. Trade with Far East. 

4. Loss of Trade Routes. 

5. Effects of Fall of Constantinople. 
II. Work of Portugal. 

1. Scientific Investigations in Portugal. 

2. Portuguese Explorations. 

III. Columbus. 

1. Early Life. 

2. Education. 

3. Marriage. 

4. Efforts to Gain Assistance. 

5. Plans for First Voyage. 

6. Four Voyages of Discovery : 

a. The Bahamas, 1492. 

b. Jamaica, 1493. 

c. Mainland of South America, 1498. 

d. Central America, 1504. 

IV. Spain's Claim the New World. 

1. Columbian Voyages, 149 2- 1504. 

2. De Leon, Florida, 1512.. 

3. Balboa, Pacific Ocean, 1513. 

4. Pineda, Florida to Mexico, 15 19. 

5. Cortez, Mexico, 1521. 

6. d'Allyon, Atlantic Coast from Florida to Maryland, 1524. 

7. Gomez, Atlantic Coast from Florida to Labrador, 1525. 

8. de Narvaez, Florida, 1528. 

9. de Vaca, Texas, 15 28-1 536. 

10. Pizarro, Peru, 1532. 

11. Coronado, Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas, and Nebraska, 

1 540-1 542. 

12. Cabrillo, California, 1540. 

13. De Soto, Mississippi River, 1540. 



A NEW ROUTE TO THE INDIES 39 

Review Questions 

1 . Why was the eastern trade valuable to Europe ? 

2. Locate the principal trade routes. 

3. Who interfered with this trade? 

4. Locate Constantinople. Trace the route from Genoa to Con- 
stantinople. 

5. Why was the fall of Constantinople an important event? 

6. How was the Renaissance related to the discovery of America? 

7. What did the Portuguese do to regain the East Indian trade? 

8. Why should we remember the following names : Prince Henry 
the Navigator, Martin Behaim, Bartholomew Diaz, Vasco da Gama? 

9. Who planned a western route to the Indies? 

10. Give an account of the life of Columbus. 

1 1 . How many voyages did Columbus make to the New World ? 

12. Tell something of his discoveries. 

13. Connect each of the following names with discoveries in the 
New World : De Leon, Balboa, Cortez, Pizarro, De Soto, Magellan. 

14. Give the general extent of Spain's claim in America. 

15. What was the line of demarcation? 

16. How did America receive its name? 



Referenxes 

Bourne, E. G. : Spain in America. 

Cheyney, E. P. : European Background of American History. 

Hart, A. B. : History Told by Contemporaries. 

Fiske, John : Discovery of America. 

King, Grace : De Soto in the Land of the Floridas. 

King and Ficklen : Stories from Louisiana History. 

Miller : Columbus. (Selected Poem.) 



CHAPTER III 
THE WORK OF FRANCE 

Early French Voyages. — While Spain was making efforts 
to colonize her newly acquired lands, other nations sought 
to discover the short route to the Indies, and also tried to 
increase their commercial interests by securing possessions 
in the New World. Among those who took up this task 
was France. 

As early as 1506, French fishermen found their way to the 
fishing banks of Newfoundland, but they made no attempt 
to settle this district because of the severe climate and the 
remote distance from the markets of Europe ; hence years 
went by and no official notice was taken of these independ- 
ent voyages. 

Francis I. — About 1524, Francis I was ruling in France. 
He was a very active king, with a determination to make 
France powerful, both at home and abroad. After settling 
a number of disputes among his nobles, and securing wide 
influence at home, Francis turned his attention to the lands 
beyond the seas. Both Spain and Portugal were jealous 
of their claims and re-asserted the Pope's edict relative to 
the line of demarcation. Francis lightly asked by what 
clause in Father Adam's will these nations were so favored, 
and, promptly ignoring their claims, sent out an expedition. 

Verrazano. — He selected an experienced Venetian sailor, 
named John Verrazano, to undertake the work. Verrazano 
sailed westward across the Atlantic Ocean and reached the 
Hudson River, then visited the shores of New England, and 
made a favorable report of the land. But there were few 

40 




French Explorations. 

4i 



42 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



results from this voyage, and ten years passed before an- 
other attempt was made by France to secure a claim in the 
New World. 

Cartier. — In the year 1534, the services of Jacques 
Cartier, a sea captain of St. Malo, Brittany, were secured, 

and he set sail for the 
coast of Newfoundland. 
He steered his vessel 
around the coast of the 
island, and entered the 
straits of Belle Isle and 
the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence. He then returned 
to France. 

In the following year 
he explored the St. Law- 
rence River and met a 
number of Algonquin 
Indians, who occupied 
this district and who 
gave the French an idea 
of the fur trade. It was 
here that Cartier located 
a site for a village (Mon- 
treal) which he called Mount Royal, and he named the 
district New France. Cartier decided to spend the winter 
in the new country, and from the first of November until 
the middle of the next March, he and his men were ice- 
bound in this region. The weather was intensely cold and 
supplies were limited. Twenty-four of his best men died 
and the others were disappointed, sorely discouraged, and 
eager to return home. 

Roberval's Colony. — The reports of the fur trade, how- 
ever, were still attractive to the French, and, a few years 
later, Francis appointed Sieur de Roberval, as Lieutenant- 



1 * 

fc ^ ^ 


Wi 




1 



Jacques Cartier. 



THE WORK OF FRANCE 



43 



governor of Canada. After making vain attempts to secure 
settlers, Roberval finally sent out a number of convicts 
from the prisons of France, a class of men not trained to 
self-support, a company of helpless people who did not 
wish to come to the strange country. The colony spent a 
year at the little station, Quebec, and then abandoned the 
project. 

The Merchants in Rouen. — Many years now passed 
before the French made another attempt to establish them- 
selves in the New World. 
The next enterprise was 
undertaken by a number 
of merchants in Rouen. 
These men organized a 
company to carry on the 
fur trade in America. 
Their plan was to secure 
a grant from the King for 
this purpose, then send 
agents into the country 
districts of France, and 
offer certain inducements 
to strong- working men 
to go over to New France to engage in the fur trade. 
Quite a number answered the call ; led by Sieur de Monts 
and Samuel Champlain, the colony landed in the neigh- 
borhood of Nova Scotia and opened a settlement which 
they named Port Royal (1605). Later, Champlain urged 
De Monts to build a fort on the St. Lawrence. Selecting 
the old site used by Roberval, they built the village of 
Quebec in 1608. De Monts returned to France and 
Champlain remained with the colony. 

Champlain. — Among the pioneers who came to New 
France, there is no one more worthy of note than Samuel 
Champlain. For thirty years he devoted his life to the 




Samuel Champlain. 



44 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



cause of French colonization, and, through the plan of 
the Rouen Merchant Company, he was able to seek the 
growth and development of French settlements along the 
St. Lawrence and on the shores of the Great Lakes. 

During the time that Champlain spent in the New World, 
he explored Lake Champlain and the district in upper New 
York. It was in this region that some of his Algonquin 




Champlain defeating the Iroquois. 



guides quarreled with the Iroquois of that neighborhood. 
They drove the French back into Canada. If this feud 
had not existed, perhaps the French would have made the 
Hudson Valley their headquarters, and our country's 
early history would have been very different. 

Champlain explored the St. Lawrence to its source, and 
then followed the course of Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Huron 
and succeeded in establishing a number of trading posts 
along these shores. He also brought many hardy young 
Frenchmen who took up the work of trapping and estab- 
lished themselves permanently in the new country. Cham- 
plain secured from the government the right to introduce 
some missionaries into this district, and these priests also 



THE WORK OF FRANCE 45 

assisted in the work of discovery as well as giving spiritual 
aid and comfort to the settlers. 

All through this period continued efforts were made to 
secure a short route to the Indies by way of the northwest 
passage, but as yet no strait had been found. It was Cham- 
plain's belief that the only direct route could be secured by 
cutting a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, but this 
scheme was put aside just as it had been a century before 
when the Spanish government had also considered this plan. 

Nicollet and Joliet. — Among the names of the French 
trappers who made important explorations we find those of 
Jean Nicollet and Louis Joliet. Nicollet visited the region 
of the Wisconsin, and made treaties with the Indians of 
the northwest, and Joliet, having heard of the great river 
of the West, determined to explore it. 

Marquette and Joliet. — It was in June, 1673, that Joliet, 
accompanied by Father Marquette, a Jesuit missionary, 
started on his way. They went down Lake Michigan to 
the Jesuit mission near the Fox River. Then they ascended 
the Fox River for a distance, carried their canoes over- 
land to the Wisconsin and floated down this stream to the 
Mississippi. They followed the mighty river until they 
passed the Missouri, the Ohio, and finally reached the 
Arkansas. At this point they were warned by the Indians 
not to continue as the tribes lower down the valley were 
hostile and used guns as did the white man. Believing the 
Spanish to be in the southern country, Joliet and Marquette 
returned to the North. These brave pioneers of the great 
valley had experienced untold dangers and met many strange 
tribes of Indians in their wanderings, but they opened the 
way for the future explorers and gave to France an idea of 
the grandeur and advantages of the Mississippi Valley. 
Marquette remained at his little mission on Lake Michigan, 
while Joliet hastened back to Canada with the news of their 
discovery. 



46 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



On the voyage, Joliet had made valuable charts and 
descriptions of his route, but these were lost by the wreck 
of his canoe in the rapids of the St. Lawrence. When 
the news of this voyage became known, the government 




Joliet and Marquette. 

of Canada was anxious to secure the control of the river 
from its source to its outlet. 

La Salle. — This task was undertaken by Robert Cava- 
lier de La Salle, known in history as the Prince of Ex- 



THE WORK OF FRANCE 



47 




Robert Cavalier de la Salle. 



plovers. Born of wealthy parents in Rouen, La Salle 
received an excellent education. In early manhood he 
lost much of his wealth and came to America ; here he 
secured a grant of land near Montreal, and engaged in 
the fur trade. Hearing 
of the great river, he con- 
ceived the idea of explor- 
ing it. He went down 
into the district of the 
Iroquois and learned of 
the Ohio. It is supposed 
that he traveled down this 
stream as far south as the 
present site of Louisville. 
He went to France twice 
in the interest of the 
colony of New France, 
and on one occasion re- 
ceived permission to build forts in the Mississippi Valley. 
In France, on one of these visits, La Salle met a young 
Italian soldier named Henri de Tonty. He was induced 
to come to America, and on later expeditions became La 
Salle's companion. 

In September of 1678, La Salle, accompanied by Tonty, 
with a number of Indian guides, some French trappers, 
and several missionaries, set out on the expedition. They 
followed the route of Joliet and Marquette and intended 
to barter for furs as they went on their way. They were 
quite successful in the fur trade and sent their boat, the 
Griffon, back with a rich cargo and planned to wait its 
return with supplies. But the Griffon was lost and after 
weary waiting and a vain search for her, the party went 
on their way down Lake Michigan, until they came to a 
portage ; here they carried their canoes to the Illinois ; and 
some distance down they built a fort, Creve Cceur (Broken 



48 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Heart). La Salle then returned to Canada for supplies, 
while some of his party went north under the guidance of 
Father Hennepin and explored the Mississippi as far as 
the falls of St. Anthony. 

La Salle was unable to find any trace of the Griffon, but 
he secured his supplies on credit and started on his trip. 
He finally reached Tonty and the remaining party, and on 
February 6, 1682, they reached the Mississippi. It was 
a memorable voyage, with many experiences among the 
Indians and many days of illness and hardship. At last, 
on April 9, the explorers came to the mouth of the 
Arkansas and here La Salle took formal possession of the 
great river for France. 

Later, near the mouth of the Mississippi River, he again 
confirmed the claim by posting a leaden tablet on a tree 
and burying another at the root of the tree. The tablets 
bore the following inscription : " Louis the Great reigns. 
The 9th of April, 1682, Robert Cavalier, with Sieur de 
Tonty, a priest, and twenty Frenchmen, was the first to 
navigate this river from the village of the Illinois down, 
and to make a passage through its mouth." The party 
then returned to Canada, and La Salle went to France to 
secure colonists and supplies and to make plans to build a 
fort at the mouth of the river. 

On July 24, 1684, he started from Rochelle, France, to- 
ward the southwest. After sailing along the Gulf of Mexico, 
and coasting in and out among a number of inlets of the 
South, but failing to find the mouth of the Mississippi, the 
voyagers landed on the coast of Texas not far from Mata- 
gorda Bay ; here they built a fort called St. Louis. A 
month later, the captain of the expedition sailed away and 
left the colony to its fate. Every effort was made to find 
the river, but without success. 

Finally, in January, La Salle with a few men started for 
Canada, hoping to secure supplies, but, on the banks of 



THE WORK OF FRANCE 



49 



Trinity River, some of 
La Salle's men mutinied 
and killed him. The 
remainder of the party 
reached the mouth of 
the Arkansas, where they 
were met by Ton ty. The 
rest of the little colony at 
Fort St. Louis were cap- 
tured by the Indians, and, 
later, a few were found 
and rescued by the Span- 
iards. Thus ended one 
of the most heroic expedi- 
tions in history, and here 
closed the life of one of 
the most courageous and 





Courtesy Robert True Co. 

Bienville. 



Iberville. 

valiant heroes of those 
early days. 

Iberville and Bien- 
ville. — In 1699 Iber- 
ville and Bienville took up 
the work of La Salle and 
succeeded in building Fort 
Maurepas, and, later, in 
founding New Orleans in 
1 7 18. St. Genevieve and 
St. Louis in the upper 
valley were also estab- 
lished, and thus France 
secured her claim to the 
vast Mississippi Valley. 

French Claims. — By 
these explorations, 
France claimed all of 



50 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Canada, the Hudson Bay country, Newfoundland, and the 
land drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries. 





->m5 



V **T 



The Founding of New Orleans. 



THE HUGUENOTS 

First Huguenot Colony. — Several attempts at coloniza- 
tion in the New World were made by the French Protes- 
tants. These people, who were known as the Huguenots, 
suffered from persecution during the religious wars in 
France, and determined to seek new homes in America. 
For the most part the Huguenots lived in the cities of 
France ; they were trained as artisans and tradesmen and 
were not adapted to pioneer life. The first colony was 
started in Brazil in 1555, but the Portuguese who occupied 
this district objected, and the settlers were obliged to aban- 
don their plans. 

Ribault. — Seven years later Jean Ribault led an expedi- 
tion to the coast of Florida, where he built a fort called 
Charlesport. The colonists suffered many hardships and 
they were glad enough to join the fleet of Sir Francis 



THE WORK OF FRANCE 5 1 

Drake and go to England where they were welcomed 
because of their skill in weaving and in other handi- 
crafts. 

Laudonniere. — Times were still very hard in France, 
and the champion of the Huguenots, Admiral Coligny, 
sent out Rene de Laudonniere to found another colony in 
Florida. This colony was brutally attacked by the Span- 
iards and destroyed. 

Later Huguenot Colonists. — ■ Practically nothing came 
of these attempts, but later, when the English established 
their colonies, many Huguenots joined them and became 
prominent and active settlers in the new land, especially 
in Charleston, South Carolina, and in Philadelphia. 

Topical Outline 

The Work of France. 

I. French Fishermen in Newfoundland, 1506. 
II. Francis I, Line of Demarcation. 

III. Giovanni de Verrazano, Eastern Coast of North America, 

1524. 

IV. Jacques Cartier, St. Lawrence River, 1534. 
V. Roberval de la Roche, Canada. 

VI. Rouen Merchant Company. 

VII. Sieur de Monts and Samuel Champlain, Port Royal, 1605. 

VEIL Champlain, St. Lawrence River, Lake Champlain, and Great 
Lakes, 1608. 

IX. Jesuits in New France. 

X. Nicollet, Lake Michigan, 1640. 

XL Father Allouez, Lake Superior, 1666. 

XII. Father Hennepin, Falls of St. Anthony. 

XIII. Louis Joliet and Father Marquette, the Mississippi to the 

Arkansas, 1673. 

XIV. La Salle, the Mississippi, 1682. 

XV. Iberville and Bienville, the Mississippi Valley. 
XVI. Claim of France. 
XVII. Work of Huguenots. 



52 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Review Questions 

i. What French king became interested in the New World? 

2. What was his attitude toward the line of demarcation? 

3. Who established the French claim in the New World? 

4. Why was the Rouen Merchant Company interested in the 
New World? 

5. Who was called the Father of New France? Why? 

6. What was the attitude of the French pioneers toward the 
Indians ? 

7. Trace on the map the explorations of the French trappers. 
Tell what you can of these explorations. 

8. Why should Joliet and Marquette be remembered? 

9. What was the extent of La Salle's explorations ? 

10. Give an account of the work of the French missionaries. 

11. What was the French plan for controlling the Mississippi 
Valley? 

12. What part did Iberville and Bienville take in the settlement 
of Louisiana? When was New Orleans founded? 

13. Who were the Huguenots? Why did they come to America? 
Did they succeed in their settlements ? 

14. State definitely the French claim in America. 

15. Locate Quebec, St. Louis, New Orleans. 

References 

Parkman : Pioneers of France. 

Parkman : La Salle. 

Fiske : Discovery of America, Vol. II. 

Winsor, Justin : Narrative and Critical History of America. 

Cheyney : European Background of American History. 



CHAPTER IV 



THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 



Attitude of King Henry VII. toward Discoveries. — The 
nation that was to make the greatest impression upon 
the New World was the English. At the time that Colum- 
bus was seeking aid of various European nations to under- 
take the search for the new route to the Indies, England 
was ruled by Henry VII. Columbus sent his brother to 
this monarch to explain 
his plans, but Henry was 
busy with his affairs of 
state and needed his 
money for the develop- 
ment of his own govern- 
ment, so he took little 
interest in uncertain dis- 
coveries. 

The Cabots. — There 
were two Venetian sailors, 
however, named John and 
Sebastian Cabot, living 
in Bristol, who began 
plans to seek a north- 
west route to the Orient. 

These men applied to the king for a privilege to undertake 
the voyage. Henry granted them permission " to sail 
to the east, west, or north with five ships, carrying the English 
flag, to seek and discover all the islands, countries, regions, 

53 









BNwwH* 








J& - ;$ Hfc. 




JIKk, '' t^mh'* 




Sj^WS^; 




' 












4f 



Sebastian Cabot. 



54 AMERICAN HISTORY 

or provinces of pagans in whatever part of the world." 
With this commission, John Cabot sailed from Bristol in 
May, 1497, an d reached what is supposed to be the coast 
of Labrador, and returned to Bristol in July of the same 
year. The king took little note of this important dis- 
covery, however, save by granting to Cabot a reward of 
about fifty dollars and a pension of one hundred dollars 
a year. 

The next year another voyage was undertaken by John 
Cabot and his son, Sebastian. It is supposed that John 
died on the way and that Sebastian succeeded in reaching 
the shores of Labrador and coasted as far south as the Caro- 
linas. Except for occasional visits to this region by fisher- 
men, the English paid little attention to the discoveries 
for many years. 

A NEW SEARCH FOR THE NORTHWEST PASSAGE 

Second Route to the Indies Sought. — In the days of 
Queen Elizabeth, many daring seamen set out to seek a 
short route to the Indies by way of a northwest passage. 
The voyages were most perilous, and the seamen suffered 
great hardships in the Arctic seas, but still they ventured 
on, making every attempt to find an open strait at the 
north of the continent. 

Frobisher. — Among the first to make this trip was 
Martin Frobisher, who started out in 1576, sailed north- 
west from England, and discovered the coast of Greenland 
and the shores of North America near Frobisher's Bay. 
While Frobisher made three voyages in the interest of 
this work, he failed to find a strait leading to the northwest. 

Davis. — Ten years later Captain John Davis was em- 
ployed by some merchants of London and Plymouth to 
seek a northwest route. He followed the course taken by 
Frobisher, but went farther north, and reached the shores 



THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 



55 



of Greenland. Later he made two other voyages and went 
as far north as Davis Strait (see map) and returned with 
reports of an open sea toward the north. Others tried to 
seek the way, but failure attended their attempts. 

Hudson. — Finally Henry Hudson, in the employ of 
the Muscovy Fur Company, of England, made two at- 
tempts to seek a northeast route by way, first, of the sea 
between Spitzbergen and Greenland; and, second, between 
Spitzbergen and Nova 
Zembla, but he was 
delayed on both voy- 
ages by great icebergs. 
Hudson made a third 
voyage in 1609, under 
patronage of the Dutch 
East India Company. 
He again sailed toward 
Nova Zembla, but he 
found the sea so full of 
ice that he changed his 
course and crossed the 
Atlantic, hoping to find 
a northwest passage in 
the neighborhood of 
what is now New York 
harbor. Hudson explored the river that bears his name and 
met the Mohawk Indians, who exchanged furs for trinkets, 
and thus introduced the Dutch East India Company to 
the fur trade in North America. This enterprise led to 
the settlement of the Dutch colonies, known as New 
Netherlands. 

Failing to find a passage to the Indies, Hudson returned 
and, in the following year, made a voyage in the service 
of the English. On this trip he reached the district of 
Hudson Strait and Bay. While he was exploring the great 




Henry Hudson. 



56 AMERICAN HISTORY 

inland sea, his men mutinied and placed Hudson, his son, 
and a few followers in an open boat and set them adrift, 
where it is supposed they perished. Hudson's failures 
were enough to discourage the most courageous seamen. 




The Discovery of the Hudson River. 

Baffin. — Within the next five years, however, another 
captain guided his ship into the perilous northwest seas. 
This was Sir William Baffin, who reached the seventy- 
eighth parallel and discovered Jones and Lancaster sounds, 
and explored Smith's Sound and Baffin Bay (i 615). All 
of these attempts were without avail, and two centuries 
passed before another attempt was made to solve the riddle 
of the north pole. 

THE ENGLISH SEA KINGS 

Spain and England in the New World. — Besides these 
bold navigators, there were others of this period who were 
quite as daring. It was an age when Spain held vast 



THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 57 

possessions in all parts of the world, and her merchants 
carried their goods into far-off lands and made exchanges 
without dispute. The commerce of this country was 
enormous, and Spain defied any interference with her plans. 
England had steadily grown in power at home, and in the 
reign of Elizabeth her people felt a desire to expand their 
interests, but Spain continually opposed this movement. 

Sea Dogs. — There arose in England a band of daring 
sailors, who determined to open the way for English trade. 
Because they watched England's commerce so closely, 
they are called the Sea Dogs and again they are sometimes 
mentioned as the Great Sea Kings. The most famous of 
these were Sir Francis Drake, Sir John Hawkins, and Sir 
Richard Grenville. To-day we should call many of their 
bold acts piracy, or robbery, but in those days there 
were not laws between nations protecting commerce, 
and the various countries often engaged in long struggles 
to wrest from one another certain advantages. 

English Ships insulted on the Spanish Main. — We 
find Spain, Portugal, Holland, and England often engaged 
in these strifes. Spain's claim to the high seas was so 
extensive that it well nigh included all of the district of 
North and South America as well as the Gulf of Mexico, 
and this region was known as the Spanish Main. Many 
English ships had been captured while they were sailing 
in these seas and their captains had been held as tres- 
passers. Drake, Grenville, and Hawkins set out to break 
this Spanish monopoly and to open the way for English 
trade. Queen Elizabeth admired the bravery of these men 
and secretly encouraged them and took their part. 

Hawkins. — John Hawkins succeeded in getting a 
foothold in the West Indian trade and opened up the slave 
trade between Africa and the Spanish colonies. 

Drake. — Drake passed the Straits of Magellan, entered 
many Spanish towns on the western coast of South America, 



58 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



and took possession of much of their treasure. Besides 
this, he captured some of the Spanish galleons on their way 
to Spain and from one, alone, he secured twenty-six tons 
of silver and eighty pounds of gold. He would have re- 
turned by the same route, but he heard that Spanish ships 
of war were out in pursuit of him, so he turned toward the 
north and attempted to return to England by way of a 

northwest passage ; how- 
ever, the ice was so great 
in the neighborhood of 
Bering Sea that he was 
obliged to return and 
spend months on the 
Pacific coast of Cali- 
fornia. He called the 
region New Albion and 
gave England her claim 
to the district of Oregon. 
Later he turned his ships 
westward across the Pa- 
cific and reached the 
coasts of India and 
Arabia, and, doubling the 
Cape of Good Hope suc- 
cessfully arrived in Eng- 
land after an absence of two years. Drake brought back 
upwards of a million dollars' worth of treasure and opened 
the way for the East Indian trade. He was greatly 
honored by the queen, and his name goes down in history 
as one of the bravest men of all time. 

Grenville. — Sir Richard Grenville also entered the West 
Indian trade and defeated many Spanish ships and helped 
to open the way for English trade. He is remembered, too, 
as the captain who brought over Raleigh's colony. In 
Tennyson's poem, The Revenge, we have a vivid picture 




Sir Francis Drake. 



THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 



59 



of the bravery of Sir Richard Grenville, and of the struggle 
between the Spanish and the English. 



ENGLISH ATTEMPTS AT COLONIZATION 

Gilbert. — While these sailors were seeking such adven- 
tures, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, and his half brother, Sir 
Walter Raleigh, were making plans to establish colonies 
in the New World. Queen Elizabeth granted permission 
to these men to make settlements, and Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert made three voyages to Labrador and New England, 
trying to locate a colony, but he was unsuccessful ; and on 
the third voyage he perished in a storm off the coast of 
New England. It was said that the storm arose late in 
the evening, and that, 
as it increased, Sir Hum- 
phrey Gilbert sat on the 
deck of the ship reading 
the Scriptures, and that, 
as night came on and his 
men grew terrified, he 
comforted them in their 
distress and cried out, 
" Cheer up, cheer up, my 
men, we are as near 
heaven by sea as by 
land." 

Raleigh. — Sir Walter 
Raleigh took up the work 
of Gilbert and sent out 
Philip Amidas and Arthur 
Barlow to seek a suitable 

site for a settlement. They visited the coasts of Carolina 
and Virginia, returned to England, and declared that 
the land was " as fair as ere the sun shone on." 




Sir Walter Raleigh. 



6o 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Raleigh named the whole coast Virginia after the virgin 
queen. 

The Spanish plantations had become a great success 
and were most resourceful. Raleigh considered that a 

similar system of English 
plantations would be the 
basis of successful colo- 
nization. To this end he 
spent vast sums of money 
and made three attempts 
to carry out his plan. 
He had great faith in the 
new country and believed 
that England could not 
have successful commerce 
in foreign countries unless 
she established colonies. 
He was convinced that 
Spain's success in the 
New World was largely 
due to the plantations 
which were then under 
cultivation, and which 
were not only profitable 
to their owners but were 
a source of revenue to 
the government. 

Raleigh's First Colony. 
— Raleigh therefore de- 
termined to open a system 
of plantations in Virginia. 
He organized his first colony in 1585. It consisted of about 
one hundred persons and was under the leadership of Ralph 
Lane. Sir Richard Grenville with a fleet of five vessels 
escorted the colonists to their new home. They made a 




^Ai/ 



k 




'!LU»MS ENGn»VING CO., N.V. 



Roanoke Island and Chesapeake 
Bay. 



THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 



6l 



settlement on Roanoke Island (North Carolina), but it was 
not a success. The food was insufficient and the colonists 
had difficulties with the Indians. During the next year Sir 
Francis Drake visited the settlement, and the colonists be- 
sought him to take them back to England, a thing which 
he did. 




Return of Governor White to Deserted Roanoke Island. 

The Lost Colony. — Although Raleigh was sorely disap- 
pointed at the failure of this settlement, he planned another 
attempt which was carried out by John White. This 
colony consisted of both men and women and numbered 



62 AMERICAN HISTORY 

one hundred and fifty persons. Raleigh desired the 
colonists to make a settlement on Chesapeake Bay, but 
they failed to do this and again selected a site on Roanoke 
Island and here erected Fort Raleigh. During the early 
days of the settlement a little girl was born to Governor 
White's daughter, Mrs. Dare. She was the first English 
child born in America, and was named Virginia in honor 
of the country. After a short while, Governor White was 
obliged to return to England for supplies. He was de- 
tained for more than two years by the war between Spain 
and England. When he returned, not a trace of the colony 
could be found. The word Croatan was carved on a 
near-by tree. As this was the name of a neighboring tribe of 
Indians, it was supposed that the settlers had removed to 
this site. But the Croatan Indians knew nothing of them, 
and to this day this settlement has been known as the Lost 
Colony. 

Raleigh's Death. — Although Raleigh did not succeed 
in his efforts, his plan was taken up later and became the 
basis of English control in America. Raleigh, in the reign 
of James I., undertook an expedition to South America to 
seek certain gold mines near the mouth of the Orinoco. He 
fell into difficulties with the Spaniards and the Indians and 
suffered defeat. His son was killed, and Raleigh returned, 
only to be accused by the Spaniards of breaking faith with 
them. James I. had him brought to trial and executed. 
Thus passed away one of the most generous and truest 
knights of the age. 

Gosnold. — Every now and then other expeditions were 
made to Virginia with the idea of selecting a suitable site for 
a colony. Among those who made voyages was Bartholo- 
mew Gosnold, who attempted in 1602 to establish a colony 
on the coast of New England, near Massachusetts. He was 
not well prepared for the plan, and, because of the severity 
of the climate, he and his men were obliged to return to 



THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 



63 



England. It was this company that learned from the 
Indians the value of sassafras as a medicine and took with 
them a supply to England. 



LONDON AND PLYMOUTH COLONIES 

The Charters. — These voyages attracted much atten- 
tion in England, and finally, in 1606, a number of men be- 
came interested in the plan of developing what was known 
as the tract of Virginia. 
They organized two com- 
panies, one in London 
and the other in Plym- 
outh. James I. granted 
them a charter that is 
known as the Charter of 
1606. It was a long 
document and had many 
provisions ; among these 
was the right of colonists 
to enjoy all privileges, 
franchises, immunities, 
and rights as were 
granted to English citi- 
zens. Besides, these 
rights were to descend 
unto succeeding genera- 
tions. The charter further provided that the London 
Company was to receive a tract of land from the vicinity 
of the Cape Fear River to the mouth of the Delaware. 
The Plymouth Company's tract extended from the mouth 
of the Hudson River to Nova Scotia. The land between 
Delaware Bay and the Hudson River was to be neutral and 
could be occupied by either, provided they did not settle 
within one hundred miles of each other. It was believed 




Charter of 1606 provided for 
Two Colonies. 



6 4 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



that the Pacific Ocean was not more than one hundred 
miles westward, so the charter grants read one hundred 
miles inland, or from sea to sea. 

Settlement of Virginia. — The Plymouth Company was 
the first to send out a colony. The settlers landed at the 
mouth of the Kennebec River in Maine, in the summer of 
1606, and built a fort. Although they were well equipped, 
the severity of the winter made many ill, and the place was 
abandoned. The next effort was made by the London 
Company, who sent one hundred and rive colonists. They 
entered Chesapeake Bay, naming the capes at the entrance 

Charles and Henry, after 
the king's sons, and 
sailed up the James River. 
Jamestown. — It was 
on the banks of this 
stream that they founded 
Jamestown in the spring 
of 1607. This became 
the first permanent Eng- 
lish settlement in Amer- 
ica. The location proved 
unhealthful, and within 
the first year more than 
half of the settlers died. 
John Smith as Leader. 
— It was during this 
time that Captain John 
Smith took charge. He 
had had wide experience 
as a soldier in the Netherlands and other parts of Europe, 
and, by his quick wit and shrewd method of dealing 
with the Indians, he secured food and supplies and helped 
to save the colonists from starvation. From time to time 
other settlers were sent out, but the hardships were very 




Captain John Smith. 



THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 65 

great during the first two years. Smith managed, however, 
to hold the people together under a system of government 
by which all had to work equally and contribute to the 
general fund. 

Governor Dale. — While this plan was a means toward 
uniting the interests of the colonists, it proved irksome to 
the settlers and was abandoned in 161 1, when Sir Thomas 
Dale was sent over as governor. Dale brought over sup- 
plies and started a new plan by granting to each of the 
planters three acres of land for his own. This plan was 
greatly appreciated, and regular work was begun upon this 
independent scheme. At this time there was a demand for 
tobacco in England, and as this plant flourished in Vir- 
ginia, it soon became the staple product. 

Governor Yeardley. — Although Dale introduced some 
harsh laws, the colony prospered, and a number of other 
immigrants arrived to take advantage of the homestead 
system. In 161 9, Sir George Yeardley was made governor, 
and he organized the House of Burgesses. This was 
the first representative form of government in America, 
and consisted of two representatives from each of the 
eleven boroughs of Virginia. 

The Question of Laborers. — As the culture of tobacco 
increased and the trade with Europe expanded, there was 
need for more laborers, and in order to satisfy this demand 
a number of convicts, runaways, and persons who had been 
kidnapped in England were sent to Virginia and bound out 
to the planters for a certain number of years. After a 
time, these people were given their liberty and were granted 
a few acres of land, farm implements, seed, and clothing, and 
put upon the list of freeholders. Because of this security 
of obtaining a home, and an opportunity to make a living, 
many poor but reputable persons accepted this plan and 
bound themselves out for a certain length of time in ex- 
change for passage across the ocean. This plan was used 



66 AMERICAN HISTORY 

in many of the colonies. In Louisiana and elsewhere 
these indented servants were known as redemptioners. 

Prosperity of Virginia. — With the establishment of the 
homestead system and representative form of government, 
the spirit of discontent disappeared, and the colonists began 
to realize a greater pride in their new homes. The success- 
ful culture of tobacco assured a living, and the labor problem 
was in a measure solved by the introduction of negro slaves 
in 1 619. These field hands were imported by a captain of a 
Dutch trading vessel, and as they proved successful in the 
culture of the crops, others were introduced, until this system 
of labor became one of the means for the extension of plan- 
tations and the increasing wealth of the planters. 

Wives for the Settlers. — One of the most important 
causes of permanency and contentment in the colony was 
the sending of wives to the settlers by the London Company. 
These were respectable young women, many of whom were 
known to the colonists, and who were brought over under 
the care of the company and at the expense of their future 
husbands. The wives proved thrifty and energetic and 
helped to make their new homes happy and comfortable. 
By 1620 the plantations spread along each side of the 
James River for a distance of one hundred and fifty miles. 
English cereals and fruit trees were introduced, and many 
heads of fine English stock were also among the posses- 
sions of the Virginians. 

Indian Conflicts. — When the colonists first landed at 
Jamestown, the Indians seemed friendly, but, as time went 
on, quarrels broke out between the races, and on one occa- 
sion Captain John Smith, who was acting governor, was 
captured by the Indians and taken to their chief, Opecan- 
canough. He in turn took Smith to his brother, Powhatan. 
After some difficulty Smith managed to make friends with 
Powhatan, and for many years the friendship continued be- 
tween the whites and Indians. Pocahontas, the daughter 



THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 



6 7 



of Powhatan, married a young settler named John Rolfe, 
and this helped to make the peace treaty secure. 

When both Pocahontas and her father had died, Opecan- 
canough was made chief of the tribe. In 1622 he deter- 
mined to break up the Virginia settlement, and, had it 




Wild this jlate oLnilhwn ufon Cyf-Smid^*^™* 



Powhatan's Lodge. 

not been for the warning of a friendly Indian, Jamestown 
might have been utterly destroyed. As it was, the Indians 
raided the frontier settlements and killed three hundred and 
fifty white settlers within three hours. The London Com- 
pany was accused of not being secure in its protection of 
the settlers and the charter was taken from them. The 



68 



AMERICAN HISTORY 




Indians were finally driven back into the forests, and, 

twenty years later, as the whites began to move farther into 

the interior, another 
massacre occurred in 
which five hundred of 
the settlers were de- 
stroyed. The English 
now forced the Indians 
to retire beyond the 
settlements of the whites, 
and for a while peace 
prevailed. 

Virginia becomes a 
Royal Province. — In 
1624 James the First 
took away the charter 
from the London Com- 
Pocahontas. pany. Virginia became 

a royal province whose governor and council were appointed 

by the crown. The House of 

Burgesses still remained as an 

assembly of the people, and, a 

little later, a regular constitution 

was given to the Virginians, 

which assured them of many of 

their former civil rights. 

When the Commonwealth was 

established in England, Cromwell 

deposed the royal governor, 

William Berkeley, and appointed 

a new governor for Virginia. 

The people were sorry to lose 

Berkeley, for he had been very 

agreeable and considerate of 

their interests. Berkeley went a Cavalier in Virginia. 




THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 69 

to France, and when Charles II. was called to the throne, 
the Virginians asked for the return of Berkeley. But we 
shall see that he returned a changed man, and proved 
unworthy of the high confidence placed in him. 

Bacon's Rebellion. — Instead of strong and conscien- 
tious, Berkeley had become careless and selfish. He had 
accumulated debts in France, and his sole interest in the 
colony was to regain his fortune. He became exceedingly 
tyrannical in his rule, and for fourteen years refused to 
allow the Virginians to elect a new House of Burgesses. 

When the Indians on the frontier began to make attacks 
upon the settlements, burning homes and murdering 
settlers, Berkeley refused to answer the call for aid and to 
suppress the raid. After repeated appeals were made and 
Berkeley still remained indifferent, it was discovered that 
the governor was carrying on a private trade with the 
Indians, and did not propose to have this interest dis- 
turbed. 

Thereupon Nathaniel Bacon, a young lawyer of Virginia, 
in 1676, raised an independent force, and went out to the 
aid of the frontier settlers. While he was gone, Berkeley 
declared Bacon a rebel, but the people sided with Bacon. 
For four months there was a struggle between the governor 
and Bacon. Finally, Berkeley was driven from Jamestown 
and it was burned. 

Shortly afterwards Bacon died and his men returned to 
their homes. Berkeley then came back and took control. 
He arrested twenty-three of Bacon's followers and had 
them executed. The people were indignant and petitioned 
the king for Berkeley's removal and it was granted. 
Charles II. declared that Berkeley had killed more men in 
Virginia than he had in England for the murder of his 
father. From this time forward the spirit of resistance to 
tyrannical governors in Virginia was very strong. Vir- 
ginia became one of the richest and most thriving colonies. 



7 o 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Farms and plantations were opened in the interior and the 
movement toward the west was begun. 

THE CAROLINAS 

Neglect of the Land South of Virginia. — South of 
Virginia lay a long stretch of level coast country deeply 
indented by bays and well watered by numerous rivers. 
This region had originally been claimed by the Spaniards 
as a part of the Florida district, but years went by and these 
people failed to make any effort to settle here. We have 
noted that as early as the days of Elizabeth, the English 
under Sir Walter Raleigh tried to plant a colony to secure 
the Cabot claim and establish a commercial base. While 
the Raleigh settlements were unsuccessful, still the Caro- 
lina coast always remained in the English mind as a goodly 
land. 

First Settlements. — The first grant after the time of 
Raleigh was made to Sir Robert Heath, in 1629, but nothing 
came of the plans for colonization. It was not until 1653 
that any settlement was made; then a few Virginians 
opened up a site on Albemarle Sound, and some New 
Englanders settled on the Cape Fear River. The latter 
were dissatisfied and abandoned the place as unhealthful 
and unprofitable. Later, in 1663, Charles II. granted the 
entire territory between Virginia and the Spanish province 
of Florida to eight of his favorites. These noblemen were 
given a charter that allowed them full proprietary rights. 

Charlestown. — Sir John Yeamans was made governor. 
He brought over a colony from the Barbadoes in 1665, 
and attempted to establish a colony at what was called 
Charlestown. Many of the inhabitants languished under 
the unhealthful climate and the remainder left, some go- 
ing to the Albemarle settlement and others to Boston, 
Massachusetts. 



THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 71 

Offers to Settlers. — It was at this time that an attempt 
was made to grant each settler a tract of land after the 
manner of the Virginia homestead system, and free trans- 
portation was assured all who would take up the offers 
of the Proprietors. In order to secure a satisfactory form 
of government, the overlords invited John Locke, a cele- 
brated philosopher, to confer with them and draft a form 
of government. 

John Locke's System of Government. — Locke prepared 
a very elaborate system known as the Fundamental Consti- 
tutions. Under this form each of the eight Proprietors 
was to hold a high position as Palatine (President), Ad- 
miral, Chamberlain, etc. A hereditary nobility was to 
be created, consisting of such classes as landgraves, soldiers, 
and artisans ; colonies of freeholders were to form the masses 
of the people ; and negroes were to be introduced as slaves. 
The whole system was entirely out of date, as even in 
European countries where the old feudal system still 
existed these forms were distasteful, and many persons were 
emigrating to America merely to be rid of the narrow- 
ness of such governments. It could hardly be set to work 
in the New World where each man had to struggle with 
nature for an existence, and where the people were few 
and far between. But the Proprietors thought it an ideal 
system, and for more than twenty years they tried to en- 
force it in America, causing great strife between them- 
selves and the early settlers. 

Another Settlement at Charlestown. — In 1669 a new 
expedition was sent to the Ashley River, and another 
settlement begun at old Charlestown. There was much 
sickness among the settlers, and political troubles began 
almost immediately. But there was still hope of success, 
and Lord Ashley, the most active of the Proprietors, con- 
tinued to send over colonists and supplies, until it was es- 
timated that he and his coworkers spent between $250,000 



72 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



and $300,000 on the enterprise without really receiving any 
return for all that they had expended. 

Religious Freedom. — The great persecutions in Europe 
drove many persons to America, and the Carolinas received 
their share of these emigrants. Among those who found a 
refuge here were a number of Scotch Highlanders, Quakers, 
Dissenters, Irish Protestants, and Huguenots. These 
were earnest workers who added their efforts to make the 
colony a success. 

Charleston. — In 1680 a new town was opened between 
the Ashley and the Cooper rivers, which became known 
as Charleston, and which grew to be the largest center of 
trade and wealth south of Philadelphia. While the coast 
settlements continued to grow, frequent attacks from the 
Indians made it difficult to extend the population into the 
interior. 

Trouble with the Spanish Colonists. — The colony had 
scarcely entered upon a state of prosperity when dangers 
from the Spaniards in Florida arose. In 1685 the Spaniards 




The "Palace" at New Berne, the Residence of the Royal 
Governor of North Carolina. 



THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 73 

attacked several of the English settlements and destroyed 
many homes. The colonists attempted to retaliate, but the 
Proprietors refused to allow them to send out an expedition. 
In the next year, the Spaniards returned and this time 
destroyed the Scotch settlement of Stewart-town near Port 
Royal. These troubles gave great alarm, and the indiffer- 
ence of the Proprietors caused continued strife between them 
and the colonists. Finally, in 1729, the charter of the Caro- 
linaswas annulled, and the district was divided into North 
and South Carolina under the form of royal province govern- 
ment, remaining as such until the American Revolution. 

Agriculture. — In the early history of the colony small 
farms prevailed, upon which general produce and tobacco 
were raised, but later these farms widened out into planta- 
tion tracts and an extensive culture of tobacco was begun. 
Rice, which had been introduced into the colony from 
Madagascar, was found to flourish in the lowlands. In- 
digo was also raised profitably. In the uplands, great forests 
of pine furnished a wealth of pitch, tar, turpentine, and 
rosin, and as there was a constant demand for such products 
in shipbuilding, the Carolinas early became renowned for 
these exports. 

Some fur trade was carried on, but the settlers chiefly 
relied upon agriculture. As time went by numbers of ne- 
groes were introduced and vast plantations were worked. 
Many of the people became very prosperous and enjoyed 
all of the luxuries of their wealthy neighbors, the Virginians. 
Charleston became known as a center of refinement and 
culture. Schools were established and a public library 
opened in Charleston. 

GEORGIA 

Oglethorpe. — During the reign of George II., there lived 
in England an army officer, named James Edward Ogle- 
thorpe. He had seen active service on the continent, and 



74 



AMERICAN HISTORY 




on his return, Oglethorpe was elected to Parliament. One 
of the first plans that he undertook was to reform the prison 
system of England. These prisons were crowded with per- 
sons, many of whom 
were held for petty debt, 
some owing as little as 
a dollar. The prisons 
were in a miserable con- 
dition from disease and 
dirt. Yet they were 
an enormous expense to 
the government. The 
keepers of the prison 
were paid according to 
the number of prisoners 
under them ; and for this 
reason, these unscrupu- 
lous officers often held 
honest and worthy men 
as criminals, and frequently arranged conditions so that 
it was impossible to secure release. 

His Colony. — Oglethorpe made a thorough investiga- 
tion and furnished a report to Parliament that stirred all 
England. Many persons became interested in the cause 
and determined to help reform conditions. Oglethorpe 
conceived the idea of opening a colony in America as a 
refuge for the debtor class. About this time South Caro- 
lina was appealing for military protection against the Span- 
iards of Florida, so Oglethorpe asked George II. to grant 
him a tract of land south of Carolina and allow him to 
make this a buffer state against the Spaniards. The king 
did so, and Parliament appropriated about fifty thousand 
dollars for the enterprise. A number of kind-hearted per- 
sons made contributions that amounted to upwards of 
twenty-five thousand dollars. With these sums Oglethorpe 



James Edward Oglethorpe. 



THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 



75 



began his plans. In 1733 he took thirty-five families to 
America. They reached the mouth of the Savannah River, 
and selecting an attractive site, purchased it from the In- 
dians and began the settlement of Savannah. iVugusta was 
founded the next year, and another town, called Frederica, 
was built close to the Spanish line. Settlers continued to 
come over, and much interest was taken in the colony. 




Savannah in the Eighteenth Century. 

Among the persons who visited it in the early days of 
settlement were the famous Methodist ministers John 
and Charles Wesley and George Whiteneld. John Wesley 
came as a missionary to the Indians, and the others estab- 
lished the beginnings of the Methodist faith in America. 
When Whiteneld returned to England, he started a move- 
ment to build an orphanage in Georgia for the destitute 
waifs of England. He succeeded in collecting enough 
money to establish the institution, and thus he began in 
Georgia the first movement in America for this kind of 
humanitarian work. 

Like many of the other colonizing enterprises, Georgia 



76 AMERICAN HISTORY 

grew slowly. The form of government was proprietary, 
and all powers were vested in the Proprietors. Slave- 
holding was prohibited, and a ban was placed upon the use 
of intoxicating liquors. These and other acts displeased the 
settlers and there was general opposition to the government. 

Oglethorpe was true to his word in regard to the Span- 
iards. In 1739, while England was at war with Spain, he 
gathered a force and attacked St. Augustine, the strongest 
Spanish settlement in northern Florida. He was unsuccess- 
ful, and the Spaniards shortly afterwards made an attack 
on Frederica. Although the English numbered but eight 
hundred men, while the Spanish had a fleet and a force of 
five thousand, yet Oglethorpe won a victory and severely 
repulsed the Spaniards. He then made another attack 
upon St. Augustine, but failed. From this time forward, 
however, the Spaniards ceased to make attacks upon the 
English colonies. 

In 1743 Oglethorpe returned to England, and for a time 
the colony suffered from political strife. Finally, the 
charter reverted to the crown, and Georgia became a royal 
province with larger privileges of self-government. 

Like Carolina, Georgia opened extensive plantations and 
extended the culture of rice, indigo, and tobacco. Negroes 
were introduced to aid in the development of agriculture, 
and Georgia took her place among the thriving colonies 
on the Atlantic seaboard. 

Topical Outline 

The English Explorations. 

I. Attitude of Henry VII. toward Discoveries. 
II. John and Sebastian Cabot, 1497-1498. 
III. Attempts to find a Northwest Passage to India : 

1 . Martin Frobisher, Labrador and Greenland. 

2. John Davis, Davis Strait. 

3. Henry Hudson, Hudson River and Hudson Bay. 

4. William Baffin, Smith's Sound and Baffin Bay. 



THE ENGLISH EXPLORATIONS 77 

IV. Conflict between England and Spain in the Sea. 

1. English Ships on the Spanish Main. 

2. Hawkins, Trade with the West Indies. 

3. Drake, Oregon. 

4. Grenville, English Commerce. 
V. English Attempts at Colonization. 

1. Sir Humphrey Gilbert's Plans. 

2. Raleigh's Attempts at Colonization. 

a. Amidas and Barlow, coast of North America. 

b. Roanoke Settlement. 

c. The Lost Colony. 

d. Raleigh's expedition to South America. 

3. Gosnold's Attempts in New England. 
VI. London and Plymouth Companies. 

1. The Charter of 1606. 

2. Settlement of Virginia, Jamestown, 1607. 

3. John Smith as Leader. 

4. Governor Dale. 

5. Governor Yeardley. 

6. Prosperity of Virginia. 

7. Wives for Settlers. 

8. Indian Conflicts. 

9. Virginia Becomes Royal Province. 
10. Bacon's Rebellion. 

VII. The Carolinas. 

1. Neglect of Land South of Virginia. 

2. First Settlements. 

a. Albemarle Sound. 

b. Cape Fear River. 

c. Charlestown. 

3. Locke's System of Government. 

4. Religious Freedom. 

5. Charleston Founded. 

6. Trouble with Spanish Colonists. 

7. Agriculture in Carolina. 
VIII. Georgia. 

1. Oglethorpe. 

2. Savannah Founded. 



78 AMERICAN HISTORY 



Review Questions 

i. Who were John and Sebastian Cabot? How did they plan 
to reach the Indies ? 

2. What prompted the English to take an interest in the New 
World? 

3. Give an account of the work of the following: Martin Fro- 
bisher, John Davis, Henry Hudson, William Baffin. 

4. What men aided in extending England's commerce? 

5. How did Spain regard England's plans in the New World? 

6. Who were Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh? 

7. Give an account of the work of Sir Walter Raleigh in America. 

8. Under what circumstances were the London and Plymouth 
Companies organized ? 

9. What was the extent of land granted to each Company? 

10. Give an account of the settlement of Jamestown. 

11. What part did each of the following take in the early history 
of Virginia: Captain John Smith, Powhatan, Pocahontas, Thomas 
Dale, George Yeardley? 

12. What were the causes of permanency in the Virginia settle- 
ment? 

13. What was meant by Bacon's Rebellion? 

14. Who undertook to develop the Carolinas ? 

15. W T hat form of government was proposed for this district? 

16. Was this a success ? 

17. What were some of the products of this region? 

18. What movement prompted the settlement of Georgia? 

19. What dangers assailed Georgia? How did Oglethorpe meet 
these troubles? 

20. What famous ministers came to Georgia? 

References 

Cheyney : European Background of American History. 

Fiske : Old Virginia and Her Neighbors. 

Thwaites : The American Colonies. 

Selected Poems : The Revenge, by Tennyson. Drake, by Noyes. 



CHAPTER V 
NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

Council for New England. — After the failure of the 
Plymouth Colony on the coast of Maine in 1606, the Plym- 
outh Company employed Captain John Smith to make 
a coast survey of their grant. Smith explored the coast 
in 1614, located the best harbors, noting places that would 
be suitable for settlement, and named the entire district 
New England. Shortly after this, the Plymouth Company 
was reorganized under the title of Council for New England. 
The district was divided among the members, but the 
Proprietors were not energetic in promoting the settlement 
of the country. 

The Puritans. — At the time of colonial development in 
America, very serious changes were taking place in Eng- 
land. Among these changes was the rise of a strong reli- 
gious party that was destined to develop new denomina- 
tions and also promote more democratic ideas than were 
known in England in earlier times. The Puritans, as they 
were called, were dissenters from the Anglican Episcopal 
Church. They organized separate congregations and used 
a simpler form of worship than the established church. 
They adopted a strict code of discipline for themselves, 
advocated democratic ideas in regard to government, and 
fearlessly voiced their opinions. 

Oppressions of the Puritans. — In the reign of King 
James many wealthy and influential people had joined the 
congregations of Puritans ; and the king, fearing their 
influence in Parliament and other departments of the Eng- 
lish government, revived many of the old acts that had been 

79 



So 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



passed against dissenters and enforced new laws that limited 
the privileges of the Puritans in church and in civil life. 
The oppressions grew so great that many occupations were 
affected by these measures. 

At this time another hardship prevailed in the rural 
districts of England. This was the custom of inclosure of 
land. Under this system large areas of public and private 
property that were occupied by small farmers were leased 



.-•fl^'v; 





The Puritans. 



to sheep owners. The tenants were forced to seek new 
homes, while the land was inclosed for sheep raising. As 
it required but comparatively few laborers to care for the 
flocks, many persons who labored on farms were thrown out 
of employment. 

Holland a Refuge. — For these reasons a group of Puri- 
tans left England and went to Holland, where religious 
toleration was observed and where employment could be 
secured. They remained in this country for ten or twelve 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



8l 



years, and then they decided to return to England as their 
children were learning the Dutch language and customs 
and intermarrying with this people. The fear of loss of 
their English individuality determined their return to the 
home country, about 1620. 

Founding of Plymouth, 1620. — Upon their return to 
England, the Puritans learned of the success of the Virginia 




The Mayflower. 



Colony, and they determined to try their fortunes in the 
new country. They negotiated with the London Company 
for transportation, and, securing permission from the king, 
they set sail in two small boats, the Speedwell and the 
Mayflower. The former proved unseaworthy, and they 
were obliged to return and make further arrangements. 

At last a company of one hundred and two, men, women, 
and children, embarked on the Mayflower, and, under the 
guidance of their pastor, Elder Brewster, embarked once 
more for the far-away land. It was a long and tedious 

G 



82 AMERICAN HISTORY 

journey made in the stormiest season of the year. At last, 
on the twenty-first of December, 1620, they came in sight of 
land, but it was not the coast of Virginia ; instead, the winds 
had carried their ship toward the New England coast, not 
far from a site named Plymouth by Captain John Smith. 

The captain refused to turn toward the south, and the 
Pilgrims, as they called themselves, were obliged to land 
on the rock-bound shores of what was later called Massa- 
chusetts. They established a little settlement that they 
named Plymouth, and sturdily began to build their homes. 
In the spring, when the Mayflower returned, not one of the 
colony abandoned the plan, but all remained to work out 
their religious and political freedom in America. 

The Mayflower Compact. — While crossing the ocean, 
the Pilgrims drew up an agreement of government called 
the Mayflower Compact. In this they declared themselves 
loyal subjects of King James and they adopted some laws 
based upon the common laws of England. They selected 
John Carver to govern and other officers to guide their affairs. 

The winter was very severe and the colonists suffered 
extreme hardships. More than half of their number died, 
including Governor Carver, and the remainder were poorly 
fed and scarcely fit to take up the work of building houses 
and tilling the soil. Upon the death of Governor Carver, 
John Bradford was elected governor. He served the colony 
for thirty years, and during this time a permanent settle- 
ment was founded. 

The Indians. — With the coming of spring a friendly 
Indian appeared who surprised the settlers by saluting 
them with " Welcome Englishmen." This was Samoset, 
one of the tribe of the Wampanoags, who had learned a 
few words of English from some sailors. Samoset brought 
the colonists corn and taught them how to plant it. Later 
he brought Massasoit, the chief of the Wampanoag In- 
dians, to visit the settlers. From this time forward a 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



*3 



strong friendship between these Indians and the white 
people was formed which lasted for many years. 

Massachusetts Bay Company. — From time to time other 
colonists joined the Plymouth settlement, but the increase 
of settlers to the New England district was not large until 
1628, when an impor- 
tant migration was led 
by some well-to-do Puri- 
tans. These men pur- 
chased a tract of land 
from the Council for 
New England and or- 
ganized the Massa- 
chusetts Bay Company. 
Among the leaders of 
the colony were John 
Endicott and John 
Winthrop, who was 
chosen governor. About 
the time of the organiza- 
tion of the plan for settle- 
ment, other Puritans became interested in the project and 
they formed a plan known as the Cambridge Agreement, 
whereby the entire administration of the Company's in- 
terests should be transferred to America. 

Massachusetts Settlements. — In 1630 one thousand 
persons left England to establish their homes in America. 
Boston was founded in 1632 and a little fishing village 
called Salem, which was founded several years before, was 
reenforced by settlers. The enterprise proved so success- 
ful that many others joined the movement. Among them 
were persons of education and wealth, clergymen, and skilled 
artisans and farmers. Within the next ten years settle- 
ments were made at Newtown, afterwards called Cam- 
bridge ; Watertown; Roxbury; and Dorchester. 




John Winthrop. 



84 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Government of Massachusetts. — The Company re- 
ceived a charter from the crown that granted them the 
privilege of self-government. The people elected their 
own governor and other officials and also members to the 
General Assembly or Court. The General Court had full 
power to legislate for the entire Bay Colony. 

Prosperity of Massachusetts. — Like all pioneer proj- 
ects, the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colonies 
suffered hardships in the early years of their settlements, 
but after a while adjustment to the new country was made 
and a permanent livelihood was secured. 

Commerce. — The first cargo shipped from Plymouth 
(162 1) was a shipload of clapboards and beaver skins. 
For some time the timber and fur trade flourished and 
afforded exchange for English wares and manufactures. 
As cod and mackerel were abundant on the coast, it was 
not long before the colonists began the export of dried and 
pickled fish. Not only did England share this trade, but 
many cargoes found their way to the Spanish West Indies. 
A few of the New England coast towns found a lucrative 
trade in the whale fisheries. 

Agriculture. — While nothing was raised for shipment 
to England, yet the small farms afforded general supplies 
for family use. Vegetables were used in season, and dried 
apples, beans, peas, cereals, potatoes, and pumpkins were 
stored for winter use. In the early days game was plentiful, 
and as time went on stock and poultry were imported from 
abroad and raised on the farms. Some flax and wool were 
obtained and homemade goods, such as linsey-woolsey 
and kerseys, were made by the thrifty housewives. 

Maine. — About the time of the settlement of Plymouth 
two Englishmen, named Captain John Mason and Sir 
Ferdinando Gorges, planned to open plantations in the 
New England district as a commercial enterprise. In 
1622 they received from the New England Council a 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 85 

large tract of land lying between the Merrimac and the 
Kennebec rivers which they called Maine. The land 
was advertised but few settlers were secured. In 1623 
some English fisher folk settled at Portsmouth and Dover. 
The Mason-Gorges scheme was not a financial success; 
and after several years of experiment, the district was 
divided (1629). Gorges received the region of Maine, 
which reverted to the crown, but was not developed to any 
extent until after the American Revolution. 

New Hampshire, 1623. — Mason received the portion 
known as New Hampshire. Shortly after this Mason 
died, and the grant was undeveloped until 1638, when a 
group of Puritans, who were banished from Massachusetts 
because of their religious opinions, went to New Hampshire 
and founded the town of Exeter. About this time other 
Puritans from England came over and founded Hampton. 
From time to time settlers from Massachusetts joined the 
settlements. The four towns, which were independent of 
each other, developed but slowly. Political and religious 
dissensions often occurred, and on several occasions there 
was trouble with the Indians. 

Finally, in 1641, the district of New Hampshire came 
under the protection of Massachusetts and remained a 
part of this colony until 1679, when Charles II. cut off the 
New Hampshire grant from Massachusetts and made the 
district a royal province having a governor appointed by 
himself. The New Hampshire settlers made a living by 
fishing, fur trade, and ship building. 

Connecticut, 1638. — The Colony of Connecticut, like 
New Hampshire, was begun through a series of independ- 
ent settlements. The earliest settlers in the Connecticut 
Valley were the Dutch, who discovered the possibilities 
of the fur trade in this district and built some trading posts, 
the most important of which was Fort of Good Hope, founded 
in 1633. 



86 AMERICAN HISTORY 

The Dutch forced out. — At the time of the Dutch 
occupation of the interior of the country, a plan for settle- 
ment was made by Lord Saye and Lord Brooke. They 
obtained a grant from the Council for New England and 
employed John Winthrop, son of Governor Winthrop, of 
Massachusetts, to carry out their plans. Winthrop and 
his colony arrived at the mouth of the Connecticut River 
just as the Dutch were preparing to build a fort at this 
place. The English asserted their claim and forced the 



nsra 



mm 



.'.*■■"'- :£' > --""■■fir) -'*iiT..--' ( X >,v4'v\% 

'? • '-- Jki ^-■-■Jjz i* '> : ' ! j]f' „-: V \ \ \ ■:- 



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is * in t m j | i 



S 



Map of Hartford in the Seventeenth Century. 

Dutch to leave (1635). The town of Saybrook was begun 
and shortly afterward a number of settlers from Massa- 
chusetts made their way to the west and began other 
settlements in the valley. 

English Settlements. — Among the most important of 
these were the towns of Windsor and Wethersfield. The 
largest migration to this fertile, attractive region was made 
by Rev. Thomas Hooker, who led one hundred members 
of his congregation through the " great woods," a journey 
of ten days, until they reached the Connecticut River. 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



87 



Here they built the town of Hartford (1636) on the former 
site of the Dutch Fort of Good Hope. Hooker secured 
a liberal charter from the English government, and in the 
next year (1637) the three towns, Hartford, Windsor, and 
Wethersfield, united and formed the province of Connecti- 
cut. A general assembly was organized, composed of dele- 
gates from each town, and all plans for a permanent and 
prosperous future were begun. 



Nkw Knoland 




Pequot Fort. 

Pequot War. — In the valley of the Connecticut lived 
a powerful Indian tribe known as the Pequots. These 
Indians had traded with the Dutch and looked upon the 
English as intruders. Moreover the Pequots were afraid 
that the new settlers would force them back into the dis- 
trict of the Mohawk Indians, who were their enemies. 
From time to time the white settlers were attacked by the 
Indians, and a feeling of alarm spread among all the towns. 



88 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Captain Mason. — As soon as the General Assembly 
met an act was passed declaring war against the Indians, 
and in 1637 Captain John Mason was selected to lead an 
attack upon the Pequot settlement near Stonington. 
Taking about one hundred white men and some Narra- 
gansett Indians as allies, Captain Mason made the attack 
upon the Indian village about daylight. The Indians were 
completely surprised and overcome. Out of seven hun- 
dred but five Indians escaped. This war against the 
Pequots put an end to the Indian outbreaks, and the colo- 
nists grew more secure in their claim to the valley. 

King Philip's War. — After the death of Massasoit 
he was succeeded by his son, known in New England his- 
tory as King Philip. Philip had been friendly with the 
whites for many years, but he began to grow uneasy about 
their encroachments upon his land. At the same time the 
English settlers in the Connecticut Valley had been at war 
with the Pequots and had driven them from the district. 
The remaining Pequots, fearing to enter the Hudson Valley 
lest their ancient enemies, the Mohawks, would attack 
them, returned toward the eastern coast and joined with 
the Wampanoags and Narragansetts in a stand against 
the whites. It was a fierce struggle and is called King 
Philip's War because Philip led the outbreak. His brother 
was killed and his wife and son were captured and sold 
into slavery ; and later he was wounded, and died declaring 
that there was nothing more to live for. This outbreak of 
the Indians was suppressed by the English and marked the 
last stand of the Indians in the New England district. 

New Haven Colony. — In 1638 another Puritan migra- 
tion from England was made to the New England country. 
This colony, led by Reverend John Davenport, made a 
settlement at New Haven on Long Island Sound. The 
members of this colony were more extreme in their religious 
ideas than any of the other Puritans. They based their 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 89 

government upon the laws of the Old Testament and in- 
stituted a system of government under which only church 
members could vote. They were joined by other con- 
gregations who built small settlements close to New Haven. 
In 1643 they were all united under the New Haven 
Constitution. In 1662 the English government gave Con- 
necticut control of the New Haven settlements, and the 
entire district was governed under the charter of Con- 
necticut. 

The Fundamental Orders. — One of the most signifi- 
cant events in the history of Connecticut was the adoption 
of a constitution by the General Court or Assembly (1639). 
This constitution, known as the Fundamental Orders, 
provided for free exercise of religion and the right of every 
freeman to vote. These acts attracted many settlers to 
this colony and aided in the permanent development of 
the province. 

Religious Controversies. — The early Puritan settlers 
left England not only because of the oppressive laws against 
dissenters, but because they desired to establish a settle- 
ment where they could carry out their own ideas in politics 
as well as religion and not be subject to opposing influences. 
With the coming of many dissenters to Boston and Salem 
in the time of the Endicott movement, there were Puritans 
who differed from one another in ideas of church and state 
administration. These people were the forerunners of 
many different denominations that were to become promi- 
nent in the community life of the American people of later 
times. The conflict of ideas brought out by these active 
speakers caused John Winthrop and other members of the 
General Assembly of Massachusetts Bay Colony to make 
efforts to check these discussions. 

Roger Williams. — Among the most noted of these inde- 
pendent Puritans was Roger Williams. He was born in 
Wales in 1600 and was educated at Cambridge, England, 



9o 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



where he took orders in the Anglican church. Very early 
in his ministry, Williams became impressed with the Puri- 
tan movement and he resigned his work in the Church of 
England and became a dissenting clergyman. He was a 
lovable character, endearing himself to many persons by 
his earnest religious views. He was sincere in his convic- 
tions and conscientious in his teachings. 




Roger Williams preaching to the Indians. 



Williams came to America in his thirty-second year as 
minister to a congregation in Salem. It was not long after 
his arrival in Salem that he found that his ideas in regard 
to separation of church and state affairs did not agree with 
the plans of the Salem government, so he left and went to 
Plymouth. Later he was recalled to Salem and began his 
work as before. It was a critical time in Salem, for there 
were others who objected to the administration's lack of 
toleration. At last laws were passed by the General Court 
forbidding any but members of the local Puritan church 
to vote. Williams opposed this measure and he was tried 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 



91 



for sedition and later banished. The trial was most note- 
worthy and many persons sided with Williams against the 
General Court. 

Anne Hutchinson. — Among those who also advocated 
" free conscience " and the separation of church and state 
was the wife of Colonel Hutchinson, a prominent official of 
Massachusetts. Mrs. Hutchinson was the daughter of a 
Puritan clergyman of renown in England, and all her life 
she had been under the influence of the free thought of the 
Puritan movement. She considered the views of Winthrop 
and other members of the Assembly narrow and intolerant, 
and she voiced her thoughts freely. She was a brilliant 
and learned woman, and it was her custom to hold Bible 
meetings in her home for the purpose of studying the Scrip- 
tures. Many persons attended these gatherings and in 
time the Assembly attempted to prohibit the meetings. 
But Mrs. Hutchinson continued her work, and at last she 
was tried for sedition and like Roger Williams was ban- 
ished from the colony. Her husband and many friends 
supported Anne Hutchinson in her work, and when she left 
the colony she was accompanied by a large following. 

Mary Dyer and the Quakers. — Among the women 
who stood by Mrs. Hutchinson during her trial was a woman 
by the name of Mary Dyer. When Mrs. Hutchinson was 
banished, Mary Dyer accompanied her to Rhode Island. 
For many years, Mrs. Dyer lived quietly in this colony 
and during her residence here she became converted to the 
Quaker faith. Hearing of the severe persecution of the 
Quakers in Boston, she determined to go and plead for them. 
Three times she was driven from Boston for interfering 
with the judgment of the General Court, and finally she was 
warned not to return under penalty of death. Her zeal 
prevailed, however, and learning that the Quakers were 
still unfairly treated, that many of them were ill in prison 
and needed aid, Mary Dyer fearlessly went back to make 



92 AMERICAN HISTORY 

another plea. She had hardly begun her appeal when she 
was seized, brought to trial, and sentenced to death. Al- 
though her relatives and friends plead for her life, she, with 
other Quakers, was executed for the cause of her religious 
convictions. 

Rhode Island, 1636. — Although the smallest of the New 
England settlements, Rhode Island has one of the most 
interesting colonial histories. When Roger Williams was 
banished from Massachusetts because of his religious views, 
he went toward the south into the land of the Narragansett 
Indians. He journeyed through the wilderness during 
the winter season, and endured much suffering from cold 
exposure. Sometimes he slept in a hollow tree and again 
found shelter in the hut of a friendly Indian. Fortunately 
while in Plymouth he had learned the Indian dialect and 
was able to make himself understood. The Narragansetts 
were kind to Williams and gave him a tract of their land. 
This region was familiarly known as Rhode Island, a name 
given to the district by the Dutch traders of earlier times. 

Providence and Other Settlements. — In the spring of 
1636 Roger Williams began a little settlement that he 
named Providence plantation in memory of God's protec- 
tion of him. During the year he was joined by members 
of his congregation and friends who had shared his views. 
Williams made a visit to England and secured a liberal 
charter for his colony. He invited persecuted Puritans, 
Quakers, Roman Catholics, and Jews to make their home 
in Rhode Island and gave to all freedom of religion and all 
privileges of citizenship. Anne Hutchinson and her fol- 
lowers found a refuge in Rhode Island, and other persons 
who were persecuted for conscience' sake gladly made their 
homes in the little province. In this way a number of 
settlements were started, among them the flourishing town 
of Newport, where the first Jewish synagogue in America 
was established. 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 93 

Religious Tolerance. — The constitution of Rhode Island 
provided for absolute separation of church and state 
affairs, and as time went on the little colony became one 
of the most successful of the New England group. 

MASSACHUSETTS LOSES HER CHARTER 

The Demands of Charles II. — When Charles II. came 
to the throne, in 1660, Massachusetts Bay Colony waited 
three months before sending an address to the king, and 
more than a year passed before the authorities proclaimed 
him king. In 1662 the king required that all public offi- 
cers should take the oath of allegiance to him ; that all 
laws in opposition to his authority be repealed ; that all 
who wished should be permitted to worship according to 
the Episcopal church ; and that the laws which prevented 
a man from voting because he was not a member of the 
Puritan church should be revoked. Massachusetts agreed 
to the first demand, acknowledged the king, and adminis- 
tered justice in Charles's name, but she retained her old 
statutes and continued her government under the original 
charter privileges. 

Colonies that Complied. — After New York had been 
taken from the Dutch in 1664, the commissioners who had 
accomplished this work were sent to the New England 
colonies to examine their local governments. They found 
Rhode Island and Connecticut in a satisfactory condition, 
and in 1664 granted to them charters with more liberal 
privileges than they had ever received. Indeed, they 
proved such satisfactory forms of government that these 
colonies retained these laws until many years after the 
American Revolution. 

Massachusetts' Defiance. — Massachusetts, however, re- 
fused to give the king's commissioners any information 
and on some occasions defied them. A report was made to 



94 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



the king. Later, in 1675, when Massachusetts formally 
annexed New Hampshire and Maine as her territory on the 
ground that certain Massachusetts fishermen had estab- 
lished trading posts on the coast and that the coast settlers 
desired her protection, the heirs of Mason and Gorges 
protested, and Edward Randolph, an English lawyer, was 
sent over to investigate the situation. He reported that 
the Massachusetts Bay Colony had no right to the Maine 

and New Hampshire dis- 
trict, and the English 
courts supported the 
Mason and Gorges claim. 
Furthermore, Randolph 
reported that the king's 
orders were of no avail 
in the colony, that the 
authorities still declared 
Massachusetts' right to 
the New Hampshire- 
Maine line, and that only 
members of the Puritan 
church had civil rights. 
Further Inharmony. — 
Charles II. was provoked 
with these conditions, 
and finally, after trying 
for ten years to get the 
colony to submit, an- 
nulled its charter. About this time Charles died and his 
brother, James II., became king. James appointed Sir 
Edmund Andros the first royal governor of Massachusetts. 
The leaders of the Puritan party in Massachusetts were 
indignant, for they felt that the old charter of the Massachu- 
setts Bay Company had been legally purchased and that the 
crown had no right to interfere with these original privileges. 




Sir Edmund Andros. 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 95 

Governor Andros. — Sir Edmund Andros came over to 
the colony with a determination to straighten out affairs. 
His rule was looked upon as very tyrannical, because he 
took away many local privileges of the towns. He levied 
and collected new taxes and he proceeded to expend the 
money as he saw fit. Fortunately he was honest in his deal- 
ings and sincere in his wish to improve the colony. It 
was said that he rebuilt a number of the public buildings, 
constructed good roads, erected shipping wharves, and made 
other public improvements. 

While Rhode Island and Connecticut were not interfered 
with, yet the king concluded that it would be better to 
unite all of the northern colonies under one government. 
Hence, a plan was arranged to place New York, New Jersey, 
and New Hampshire under rule of Andros as well as Rhode 
Island, Massachusetts, and Connecticut. This displeased 
the respective colonies, and in many instances Andros was 
forced to limit privileges in order to control the situation. 
He was thoroughly disliked for his so-called tyranny. 
Recent writers are inclined to agree, however, that, upon 
the whole, Andros was one of the best of the early governors 
of this district and that he was kind-hearted and gentle- 
manly in his treatment of the people and only severe with 
certain opposing factions. 

Massachusetts' New Charter. — When James II. was 
deposed by the English people in 1688, and William and 
Mary came to the throne, changes were made in the gov- 
ernment of the colonies in America. Andros was recalled, 
and Massachusetts received a new charter. Though it 
was not as liberal as she had hoped, yet it was larger in its 
privileges of self-government and was retained until the 
American Revolution. Maine and Plymouth were also 
added to Massachusetts, and Rhode Island and Connecti- 
cut were allowed to resume their former governments. 



96 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Topical Outline 

New England Colonies. 

I. Council for New England. 
II. The Puritans. 

i. Religious Oppression. 

2. Holland a Refuge. 

3. Founding of Plymouth, 1620. 

4. Mayflower Compact. 

5. The Indians. 

III. Massachusetts Bay Company. 

1. Settlements. 

2. Government. 

3. Prosperity. 

a. Commerce. 

b. Agriculture. 

IV. Maine. 

V. New Hampshire, 1623. 
VI. Connecticut, 1638. 

1. Dutch Forced Out. 

2. English Settlements in Connecticut. 

3. Pequot War. 

4. King Philip's War. 

5. New Haven Colony. 
VII. Religious Controversies. 

1. Roger Williams. 

2. Anne Hutchinson. 

3. Mary Dyer. 
VIII. Rhode Island, 1636. 

1. Providence and Other Settlements. 

2. Religious Tolerance. 

IX. Massachusetts Loses her Charter. 

1. Demands of Charles II. 

2. Colonies that Complied. 

3. Defiance of Massachusetts. 

4. Governor Andros. 

X. Massachusetts Receives New Charter. 



Review Questions 

1. What prompted the settlement of New England? 

2. Who took up the work of the Plymouth Company? 



NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 97 

3. Who were the Puritans? Why were some of these people 
called Pilgrims ? 

4. Under what circumstances was Plymouth founded? Give 
the date of this settlement. 

5. What was meant by the Mayflower Compact? 

6. How did the Indians treat the Plymouth settlers ? 

7. Who organized the Massachusetts Bay Company? 

8. What were the principal industries of the Massachusetts 
people ? 

9. What attempts were made to settle Maine and New Hamp- 
shire ? 

10. Who led a colony into Connecticut ? What other nation made 
a settlement in this region? 

11. Who were the following: Roger Williams, Anne Hutchinson, 
Thomas Hooker, Ferdinando Gorges, John Mason? 

12. Give an account of the Indian Wars in New England. 

13. Explain how Massachusetts lost her charter. 

14. W T hat do you know of the rule of Sir Edward Andros? 

15. How did Massachusetts receive a new charter? 



References 

Fiske : New England. 
Lodge : The American Colonies. 
Thwaites : The American Colonies. 

Selected Poems : The Landing of the Pilgrims, Hemans. Sir Hum- 
phrey Gilbert, Tennyson. 



CHAPTER VI 
THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

New York. — The Dutch claimed the land drained by 
the Hudson River because of the expedition of Henry 
Hudson. The attractive scenery, general fertility of the 
soil, and opportunities of trade with the Indians prompted 





The Dutch Colonists. 

the Dutch to secure this district. In 1612 some merchants 
in Holland sent out two explorers, Christiansen and Blok, 
to the island of Manhattan, where they built a fort. This 
was attacked by Governor Argall of Virginia in 16 13, but 
not destroyed. In 16 14 Blok entered and explored the 
Connecticut River and visited Narragansett Bay and gave 

98 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



99 



the name Rhode Island (Roode Island) to this district. 
The Dutch traders then began building a series of forts 
on the Connecticut, the Hudson, and the Delaware rivers 
and opened up an active fur trade with the Indians. 

Dutch West India Company. — In 162 1 the famous 
Dutch West India Company was formed and granted a 
twenty-year charter by the government of Holland. Under 




New Amsterdam in the Seventeenth Century. 

this charter the company had the right to the monopoly 
of the trade on the " west coast of Africa from Cape Verd 
to the Cape of Good Hope ; in all islands lying in the At- 
lantic Ocean ; on the east coast of America from Newfound- 
land to the Straits of Magellan; and even beyond the 
Straits on its west coast, and in the southern lands which at 
that time were still believed to stretch from Cape Horn 
across the South Pacific to New Guinea. All the non- 
European regions of the globe were thus divided by the 
States-General." 



IOO AMERICAN HISTORY 

Dutch Sailors. — From this time forward the Dutch 
sailors were unceasing in their efforts to open up markets 
in all parts of the world, and in a few years they were to 
become known as the most fearless and successful traders 
in the whole world. 

New Amsterdam. — The Dutch West India Company 
appointed Peter Minuit as governor of New Netherlands, 
as their possessions in America were called. In 1626 
Minuit purchased the island of Manhattan from the In- 
dians for twenty-four dollars' worth of trinkets ; to-day it 
has become perhaps the most valuable site in America. 
A town was started here called New Amsterdam, which 
later became New York City. 

The Patroon System. — In order to attract immigration 
to the new country, the West India Company organized 
a system of grants known as patroonships. To any mem- 
ber of the company who would send over fifty settlers, 
build a church and a schoolhouse, and furnish a minister 
and a schoolmaster, a large grant of land was given. Many 
Dutch farmers answered the advertisements of the patroons, 
and each settler was furnished with a set of farming tools, 
and exempted from taxation for ten years. But they were 
not given the right to vote and were entirely under the 
rule of the patroon who acted as their governor and judge. 
The settlers were not to remove from the plantation for 
ten years, and furthermore were not allowed to hunt, fish, 
or manufacture, or, in other words, interfere with the 
monopoly rights of the company. 

Prosperity for the Governors. — The system worked very 
well for some time, and in the succeeding years many of the 
patroons became very wealthy. A number of these lords 
proprietors built handsome homes in New Amsterdam and 
continued to carry on extensive trade with Europe. In the 
course of time, this city grew into wealth and importance. 

Opposition by Colonists. — Many of the governors 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



IOI 



appointed by the company were despotic and dishonest 
in their rule, and the aristocratic patroons were often 
exacting in their control, so the liberty-loving Dutch began 
to resent the continual oppression. Finally when Governor 
Kieft, against the wishes of the people, opened up a serious 
war with the Algonquin Indians, and levied an unusually 
severe war tax, the inhabitants of New Amsterdam sent a 
petition to the government of Holland asking for self- 
government. They did not get this privilege, but the gov- 
ernment sent out more considerate governors. 

Peter Stuyvesant. — This was only temporary ; for Peter 
Stuyvesant, the governor, really opposed any attempts 
at self-government, and 
it was only when he was 
in great need of money 
to keep up the defenses 
of New Amsterdam that 
he allowed the people to 
elect some of their most 
representative men in 
order that he might 
select nine to serve as 
a committee to confer 
with when necessary. 

His Successful Rule. 
— While Stuyvesant was 
often arbitrary in his 
rule and gave few privi- 
leges to the colonists, 
his shrewd management of the business of the colony and 
his close understanding of trade relations made New Nether- 
lands prosperous and attracted other settlers. He forced 
the Swedish colony in Delaware to come under the control 
of New Netherlands and extended the Dutch claim in 
New Jersey and east of the Hudson Valley. 




Peter Stuyvesant. 



102 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Formal Transfer to England. — In 1664 Charles II, laid 
claim to New Netherlands on the ground that it was in- 
cluded in the original English possessions, and furthermore 
that the Dutch had constantly interfered with the Eng- 
lish trade in America, the Spice Islands, and other parts 
of the far East. A treaty with Holland was effected 
whereby a formal transfer of New Netherlands was made 
to the English. 

Actual Transfer to England. — Many English who had 
settled on Long Island and also in Manhattan had made 
friends with the Dutch inhabitants, hence when Nicolls, 
the commander of the English fleet, arrived and demanded 
the surrender of the city, although Stuyvesant stoutly 
refused, the people of New Amsterdam and other places 
declined to assist the governor against the English. With- 
out any difficulty the whole section came under British 
control. 

Change of Name. — The entire district was granted 
to the king's brother, the Duke of York, and its name from 
that time forward became New York. Later the Duke of 
York granted the southern part of the territory to two Eng- 
lish gentlemen, Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, 
and this district became known as New Jersey. 

English Control of New York. — The control of New 
York now gave the English an unbroken line of territory 
from Canada to Florida. 

The English immediately established a form of self- 
government, revised the school system, and extended the 
trade privileges. Soon many other colonists came into 
the country, and it was said that as early as the first occu- 
pation of New York City by the English that as many as 
eighteen foreign languages could be heard on its streets; 
hence it was known as the city of foreigners. 

In 1674 dissatisfaction arose between the Dutch and 
English, and New York for a brief time fell into the hands 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



I03 



of the Dutch, but it was shortly afterwards restored to the 
English. 

Industrial Interests. — While the interest of the town 
folk was still in commerce, many farms and plantations 
were opened along the Hudson, and slave labor was intro- 
duced to assist in agriculture. The state prospered and 
became an important colonial possession of the English. 
The fur trade was continued with the Iroquois Indians, and 
by treaties with the Five Nations, the English soon opened 
the way for westward control. 

Maryland. — For years there were sharp conflicts in 
England over religious questions. Changes were made in 
laws limiting religious 
privileges, and people 
were frequently perse- 
cuted. About the year 
1630 the Roman Catho- 
lics suffered from this 
oppression , and a wealthy 
member of this faith, 
George Calvert, Lord 
Baltimore, determined 
to establish a home for 
those who were perse- 
cuted. Baltimore first 
tried to plant a colony 
on Newfoundland, but 
this was a failure. Then 
he secured a tract of land 
on both sides of Chesa- 
peake Bay, which in- 
cluded a portion of Vir- 
ginia and Pennsylvania. 
Before Lord Baltimore could carry out his plans he died, and 
his sons Leonard and Cecil Calvert took up the project. The 




Lord Baltimore. 



io4 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



grant was named Maryland in honor of Queen Henrietta 
Maria, who was a Catholic, and who favored the enterprise. 
The first colony was sent over in 1634, and a settlement 
named St. Mary's was made at the mouth of the Potomac. 
Kind of Government. — A proprietary form of govern- 
ment was set up and religious toleration was established. 

Under the charter, 
the proprietor could 
appoint the governor 
and other officers of 
state and also name 
the higher council, 
while the people had 
the privilege of elect- 
ing the members to a 
general assembly. 

Industrial Pursuits. 
— The soil of Mary- 
land was fertile, and 
the settlers began the 
culture of tobacco, 
which became as 
profitable as it had 
been in Virginia. 
Wheat grew excel- 
Maryland Settlements. lently, and shortly be- 

came one of the staple crops. Many small farms were 
opened and a variety of English fruits and cereals were intro- 
duced and flourished. Besides agriculture, fisheries and fur 
trade were carried on. The colonists established friendly re- 
lations with the Indians and avoided conflicts with them. 

Religious Controversies. — But Maryland was destined 
to be the scene of many religious controversies. When 
Lord Baltimore received his charter, he determined to have 
absolute religious toleration. He opened the colony to 




THE MIDDLE COLONIES 105 

all creeds. There was naturally a predominance of Roman 
Catholics then. When Charles I. was beheaded, the colo- 
nists declared his son as their king. This antagonized the 
Puritan settlers in Maryland, who recognized Cromwell 
as their national head. Thereupon, the charter of Lord 
Baltimore was revoked. Cromwell, however, investigated 
the conditions and restored the charter. Later when Balti- 
more granted more liberal privileges to the Protestants, 
Charles II. revoked the charter, declaring that the Pro- 
prietor had been too lenient to dissenters. As time went 
by, religious strife continued among the colonists ; and at 
one time the Puritans, who had founded Annapolis and 
other towns, got control of the government and denied the 
right of representation to the Catholics. This matter was 
finally adjusted, and religious toleration and freedom in both 
worship and in civil affairs restored. 

Claiborne's Ambition. — As Virginia and Pennsylvania 
were opposed to the boundaries of Maryland, a wealthy 
Virginian, William Claiborne, determined to claim Kent's 
Island in Chesapeake Bay and control the fur trade of this 
district without submitting to Lord Baltimore's authority. 
Claiborne called upon the Virginia Assembly for aid. For 
a time it seemed as though both colonies would be drawn 
into a civil war. The crown settled this difficulty by 
deciding in favor of Baltimore. 

William Penn was also afraid that the waterway of Penn- 
sylvania might be shut off, so Penn had an adjustment made 
in regard to the Maryland boundary which was in his favor. 

Under Lords Baltimore. — As the fortunes of the Lords 
Baltimore in England shifted from time to time, so condi- 
tions in Maryland were more or less changed, but for five 
successive generations the colony remained within the con- 
trol of this family. It was not until the American Revo- 
lution that it became a " free and independent state." 

New Jersey. — On June 24, 1664, when the Duke of 



106 AMERICAN HISTORY 

York received the grant of New Netherlands, he granted 
to Berkeley and Carteret all land between the Hudson and 
Delaware rivers from Cape May on the south to Long 
Island Sound on the north. The name New Jersey was 
given to the country because Carteret had formerly been 
governor of an island off the coast of England, called Jersey. 
In the beginning it was divided into two districts, East 
and West Jersey. 

Natural Advantages. — The land was fertile, and, as the 
charter offered a free and liberal plan of government, many 
settlers from near-by colonies were attracted to it. It was 
an admirable tract for farming and cattle raising ; and a 
number of Dutch farmers established themselves in the 
towns of Bergen, Hobuc (Hoboken), and New Castle ; and 
on the west the Swedes, Finns, and Dutch, who owned tracts 
before the cession to the Duke of York, continued their 
interests. Afterwards the later settlers became merged 
into the regular English population. 

Government. — Many New Englanders settled along 
the Passaic, and became so energetic in their political 
plans that it was said that New Jersey became a little 
model of New England. There were some struggles 
between the people and the proprietors over civil rights, 
but the colonists for the most part were able to carry out 
their plans of government. 

Temporary Change of Government. — In 1673 New 
Jersey, New York, and Long Island passed under the rule 
of the States-General of Holland, but this brought little 
change in the colony, and the Dutch rule was over within 
the year. In 1674 a number of Quakers emigrated into 
the colony and became quite influential. They later moved 
into the Delaware district. 

Industries. — The industries of the colony were farming, 
cattle raising, pottery, brick making, and lumbering. It 
was said that a contract was let to " one, Daniel Coxe of 



THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



107 



this colony, to furnish cedar trees for the roof and inward 
work of St. Paul's cathedral/' in London. 

Under Quaker Control. — In 1679 Carteret sold his 
rights to New Jersey for the payment of his debts. Twelve 
Quakers, with William Penn at the head of the company, 
bought these rights ; and thus New Jersey came under 
Quaker control. The colony prospered 
so greatly that it was said : " There is 
not a poor body in the Province." 

Pennsylvania. — Among the people of 
England who suffered severe persecu- 
tions because of their religion were the 
Quakers, or the Society of Friends, as 
they called themselves. These people 
were deeply pious and believed in social 
equality, the abolition of slavery, reforms 
in prison conditions, and simplicity in 
dress and manners. They were enthusi- 
astic in their faith, and many of them 
came to America as missionaries. Be- 
cause of their extreme views and fearless 
criticism they were persecuted in some 
of the colonies, especially in New Eng- 
land. Rhode Island, however, offered 
them homes. George Fox, the founder 
of the society, visited America and urged the establishment 
of an asylum or district for the Quakers. The plan of Fox 
was carried out by William Penn, son of Admiral Penn of 
the English Navy. 

William Penn. — While a student at Oxford, Penn 
became impressed with the teachings of the Quakers and 
desired to join their ranks. His father discouraged these 
ideas and sent Penn to travel on the Continent. While 
abroad, Penn became acquainted with the gay life of Europe 
and visited many of the large cities. At one time he took 




A Quaker. 



io8 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



service in the Dutch war. On his return to England he 
began the study of law ; but, before he completed his studies, 
he visited his father's estates in Ireland, and here he met 
Thomas Loe, a famous Quaker. Penn was converted to the 

faith and became a loyal 
member of the Society 
of Friends. His father, 
greatly disappointed, at 
once threatened to disin- 
herit him. Some time 
passed before they were 
reconciled ; but, when 
Penn received his father's 
forgiveness, the latter 
went so far as to aid 
his son and some fellow 
Quakers in their release 
from prison. 

Penn's Grant. — Ad- 
miral Penn left his son a 
William Penn. comfortable income be- 

sides a large claim upon the king for certain loans that had 
been given to the king. It was in part payment of this 
debt that Penn succeeded in obtaining a grant of land in 
America " lying north of Maryland and bounded by the 
Delaware River and on the west limited as far as Mary- 
land and northward to extend as far as plantable." This 
district was named Pennsylvania (Penn's Woodland). 

The First Settlement. — In 1682 the first of Penn's 
colonists came to America. They were instructed by Penn 
to choose a site for a town where "it is most navigable, 
dry and healthy," and he added that the streets were to 
be broad and that each house should be located " in the 
middle of its own plat, that it may be a green country town, 
which will never be burned, and always be wholesome." 




THE MIDDLE COLONIES 



109 



Trees were to be set out wherever needed and the houses 
were to be substantial and attractive; thus a beautiful, 
healthful city was built with every feature meaning per- 
manency and a place worthy of attracting colonists. 

Government. — Penn and his heirs were made lords 
proprietors of the district. Penn received a liberal charter 
and he prepared a strong, free government for his people. 
He wrote to his settlers : " You shall be governed by laws 




Penn's Treaty with the Indians. 



of your own making and live free, and, if you will, a sober 
and industrious people. I shall not usurp the right of any 
nor oppress his person." Penn organized a trading com- 
pany known as the Free Society of Traders. To these he 
gave trading privileges and twenty thousand acres of land. 
In preparing the government of the colony, Penn wrote 
that there was but one end in government, that is " to 
support power in reverence to the people and to secure the 
people from the abuse of power. Let men be good and the 
government cannot be bad, but if men be bad, let the gov- 



110 AMERICAN HISTORY 

ernment be ever so good, they will endeavor to warp and 
spoil it to their own turn." 

The type of government of Pennsylvania was a proprie- 
tary ship consisting of a governor, deputy governor, a pro- 
vincial council, and an assembly, the last two elected by 
the people. 

Indian Treaty. — Penn held many meetings with the 
Indians and secured their good will and friendship. He 
planned a council of six planters and six representatives 
of the Indians to settle all difficulties between the settlers 
and the Indians. In 1683 he made a great treaty with the 
Indians, that declared that peace should exist between the 
settlers and the Indians " as long as the sun and moon 
should shine." It is interesting to note that Pennsylvania 
was the only one of the colonies that escaped serious diffi- 
culties with the savages. 

Population. — Of the population in Pennsylvania not 
more than one half were English; the rest were Dutch, 
Finns, Swedes, Germans, Huguenots, Scotch, and Irish. 
These were industrious people who introduced various kinds 
of arts and crafts into the colony, and shortly great pros- 
perity spread among the people. Among the first things 
that Penn established were a postal service, a public school 
system, and a printing press. 

Trade. — The trade of Philadelphia was with the neigh- 
boring colonies and the West Indies, so that this city early 
became known as a commercial center. Most of the houses 
were three stories with good cellars, and many of the homes 
had balconies. Philadelphia was destined to become one 
of the largest and most imposing cities in America before 
the Revolution, and it became the scene of many historical 
events. 

Delaware. — When Gustavus Adolphus was king of 
Sweden, he granted a charter to some merchants in Sweden 
under the title of the Swedish West India Company. 



* THE MIDDLE COLONIES III 

These men had the right to trade and make settlements in 
the New World. The king died before the enterprise was 
well under way, but the company undertook to establish 
a colony on the Delaware and named it New Sweden. At 
this time the mother country was engaged in a conflict 
in Europe and could pay very little attention to the new 
enterprise. The result was that when New Netherlands 
fell into the hands of the English, the Delaware Colony 
came under English control. 

Under Perm's Control. — In 1681, William Penn ob- 
tained proprietorship of the district in order to secure an 
outlet for trade by way of the Delaware River and Bay. 
Although William Penn granted the people the privilege 
of an independent assembly, still Delaware and Pennsyl- 
vania were under the control of Penn's heirs until the Amer- 
ican Revolution. The population increased and was 
composed of Swedes, Germans from the north of Germany, 
Huguenots, and Quakers. The people were industrious 
and shared the prosperity of Pennsylvania. 

Topical Outline 

The Middle Colonies. 
I. New York, 1614. 

1. Dutch West India Company. 

2. New Amsterdam Founded. 

3. The Patroon System. 

4. Prosperity, New Netherlands. 

5. Tyrannical Rule. 

6. Peter Stuyvesant. 

7. Transfer of New Netherlands to England. 

8. Change of Name. 

9. English Control of New York. 
10. Industrial Interests. 

II. Maryland, 1634. 

1. Government, Royal Province. 

2. Industrial Pursuits. 

3. Religious Controversies. 

4. Claiborne's Ambition. 



112 AMERICAN HISTORY 

III. New Jersey, 1664. 

1. Natural Advantages. 

2. Government. 

3. Temporary Change of Government. 

4. Industries. 

5. New Jersey Controlled by Quakers. 

IV. Pennsylvania, 1682. 

1. William Penn. 

2. Penn's Grant. 

3. First Settlement, Philadelphia. 

4. Government of Pennsylvania. 

5. Indian Treaty. 

6. Population. 

7. Trade. 

V. Delaware, 1638. 

1. Swedish West India Company. 

2. Settlement on Delaware River, 1638. 

3. Delaware Controlled by Penn, 1681. 

Review Questions 

1. Give an account of the settlement of New York. 

2. Under what conditions did the English gain control of New 
York? 

3. What do you know of the founding of Maryland? 

4. What nation settled New Jersey? 

5. What led to the settlement of Pennsylvania? 

6. Tell the story of William Penn's life. 

7. Who settled Delaware ? 

Home Reading 

Andrews : Colonial Self- Government. 
Fisher : Colonial Era. 
Thwaites : The American Colonies. 

Selected Readings : Diedrich Knickerbocker's History of New York, 
Washington Irving. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 

Unrest among Colonies of Various Nations. — For many 
years well-organized trading companies of European nations 
vied with one another in the control of foreign commerce. 
Each tried to gain a monopoly of certain markets, and this 
led to untold unrest and strife. As each nation established 
colonies in America, it was generally understood that these 
would in time prove valuable markets for the mother coun- 
try, both as a place for sale of home-manufactured goods as 
well as a place to secure raw products and food supplies. 

Early Skirmishes. — As the interests of one and the other 
conflicted, struggles between the frontiersmen of Canada 
and those of New York and New England began. For 
more than twenty-five years these struggles went on in the 
form of skirmishes before formal war was declared. In 
both instances, the frontier settlers were aided by their 
Indian allies who stood loyally by their European friends. 

General Points of Contention. — When the westward 
movement began, there was bound to come a struggle for 
control of the fur trade, the wide land areas, and the splen- 
did waterways. The French got into the interior easily 
by way of the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes, and it was 
not long before they determined to claim the great river of 
the interior. The English were hemmed in by the natural 
barrier of the Allegheny and Blue Ridge mountains, and 
made their way comparatively slowly into the country, 
i 113 



114 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Main Points of Contention. — There were three main 
objects of contention between the French and the English. 
These were : 

First, the fisheries on the coast between Newfoundland and Long 
Island. 

Second, the fur trade of the Great Lakes and Northwest Territory. 
Third, the control of the Ohio and the Mississippi rivers. 

French and English Claims on the Coast. — The French 
claimed the whole coast from eastern Maine to Hudson 
Bay ; and the English held a right to the coast from Bay of 
Fundy to the district of Florida. From time to time, as the 
fishermen followed the great schools of cod and mackerel 
back and forth in these waters, they constantly overlapped 
their claims, causing conflicts such as had occurred to their 
forefathers when they had contended for the fisheries of 
the English Channel. 

French Claims in the Interior. — In the interior, the 
French claim was even more unlimited, for it included the 
St. Lawrence Valley and the basin of the Great Lakes, as 
well as the land drained by the Mississippi and its tribu- 
taries. This latter district included the valleys of the Ohio, 
Tennessee, Cumberland, Yazoo, numerous small streams on 
the east, besides the immense unexplored tract drained by the 
Missouri, Arkansas, and Red rivers of the west and known 
as the Louisiana territory. To yield one portion of this 
vast territory meant the possibility of the loss of control 
of the rich fur trade. Absolute protection of these rights 
became the watchword of the French. To this end, an 
extensive line of forts was planned which, together with the 
trapping posts and missions, might prove beyond a doubt 
that the land was actually occupied. 

Overlapping Claims to the South. — At the south of the 
English colonies lay the Spanish possessions of Florida, and 
south of the French territory of Louisiana were Texas and 



THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 



115 



New Mexico, other Spanish claims. It was not hard to 
strike conflicting claims of overlapping territory all through 
these poorly defined boundaries. 

King William's War, 1689-1697. — When the great 
European wars broke out and England and France became 
engaged in these struggles, it was the signal for outbreaks 
between the colonists of the nations in America. The first 
of these conflicts is known in American history as King 




The Attack on Deerfield. 

William's War, and is mentioned in English history as the 
War of the English Succession. 

In 1688 there occurred in England what was termed the 
Glorious Revolution. The English people had grown tired 
of the increasing tyranny of their king, James I., and forced 
him to leave the country. James fled to France, where he 
found a ready ally in the French king, Louis XIV. A 
struggle now began between France and England, which 
brought the colonies of each of the mother countries into 
the conflict. The war continued under the name of Queen 



Il6 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Anne's War, and lasted for almost twenty-five years. The 
New England and New York colonies were most active in 
these wars as they were nearest the French frontier. 

Indian Attacks. — Count Frontenac, the governor of 
Canada, now planned to invade New York and cut this 
district from the New England colonies. The Iroquois 
Indians, who were the friends of the English, heard of the 
plan and they made some attacks upon the Canadian fron- 
tier. The French with their Indian allies made their way 
down the Hudson Valley in the depth of the winter season. 
One night they stole upon the village of Schenectady, and 
massacred the inhabitants without warning. They then 
made similar attacks upon Salmon Falls, Deerfield, and 
Haverhill, Massachusetts. The suffering of the people 
was very great, — many of them were cruelly tortured and 
others driven as prisoners into Canada. The English now 
planned an attack upon Port Royal in Acadia and captured 
it. Later attacks were planned upon Quebec and Mon- 
treal, but these failed. 

Treaty of Ryswick. — The treaty of Ryswick closed the 
first war. By this treaty Acadia was returned to the French 
in exchange for European possessions of more value to the 
English. This offended the New England people, who had 
long desired Port Royal as a fishing base on the Bay of Fundy. 

Queen Anne's War, 1702-1713. — When the next war 
broke out, known as Queen Anne's War or the War of the 
Spanish Succession, another expedition was planned against 
Port Royal, and it was again captured. Acadia was named 
Nova Scotia ; and Port Royal was renamed Annapolis in 
honor of the queen. The English were also successful in the 
Hudson Bay region. By the treaty of Utrecht, signed at 
the close of the war, they received, besides the Hudson Bay 
district and Nova Scotia, the island of Newfoundland. 
This war was also characterized by cruel massacres on the 
borders. As Spain was engaged in the conflict, some of her 



THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 



117 



American colonies were drawn into the war, and fighting 
took place on the Carolina coast. 

King George's War, 1744-1748. — Many years now 
passed before another struggle took place, but during the 
reign of George II., all Europe was drawn into a long and 
disastrous war known as the War of the Austrian Succession. 
In America it was called King George's War. Again France 
and England were opposed to each other. When the con- 
flict broke out, New England sent a fleet of one hundred 




SCENE OF THE 
LAST FRENCH WAR 

BOB HAY, H.T. 64° 



vessels and several thousand troops against Louisburg, the 
strongest French fortress in America. This fort was located 
on Cape Breton Island ; it was built of stone and had cost 
several million dollars. The French had always boasted 
that it could not be taken, but, after a siege, it was captured 
(1774) ; and, to the great discontent of the Americans, it was 
returned to France in exchange for Gibraltar (treaty of Aix 
la Chapelle, 1748). 

French and Indian War. — These wars had the effect of 
uniting both sides more closely in their own colonies and 



Il8 AMERICAN HISTORY 

of giving to each a certain preparation that they were to 
use with strong effect in the next struggle, which is known 
as the French and Indian War. 

Preliminary Events. — For years the French had built 
forts and trading posts along the St. Lawrence, Great 
Lakes, and the Mississippi River, until by the year 1750, 
they had erected more than sixty. This chain of forts 
literally hemmed in the English on the narrow strip of 
Atlantic seaboard. About the year 1753 some Virginia and 
Maryland planters formed the Ohio Company for the pur- 
pose of opening up a new tract of land in the western dis- 
trict of Virginia. It was their plan to divide this into 
plantations and connect these by an open road with the 
Potomac River and thence to Chesapeake Bay. In their 
charter it was stipulated that they were " to plant on their 
lands a hundred families within seven years, " and also to 
erect a fort on the Ohio. 

Overlapping Claims of the French and English in the 
West. — ■ Christopher Gist was sent out to survey the lands. 
He explored what are now the states of Ohio, Kentucky, 
and West Virginia, besides western Maryland and Pennsyl- 
vania. He made a favorable report. Then the Ohio Com- 
pany began its work by erecting a fort near the head of the 
Cumberland River. They then blazed a trail for sixty miles 
into the interior and began the open road that was to be- 
come the highway for the settlements. Neither England 
nor France had ever made any definite boundaries of the 
interior of their possessions and their claims varied accord- 
ing to the late comer. 

French Hostilities. — In the spring of 1753 the French 
built Fort Lebceuf on the Allegheny, and not far from 
this the English built a trading post called Venango. This 
was seized by the French and occupied by some of their 
forces from Fort Lebceuf. 

Washington's Mission. — When Governor Dinwiddie of 



THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 119 

Virginia heard of this he sent Major George Washington, 
Adjutant-General of the Colonial Militia, to urge the French 
to give up the English claim. Washington was but twenty- 
one years of age at this time ; yet as a surveyor, he had 
had experience in exploring the woodlands. He was 
accompanied by Christopher Gist and some Indian guides. 
It was a most perilous journey, as the French and Indians 
were on the lookout for the scalp of any Englishman who 





Washington's Return from the French Fort. 

might intrude upon the country, and, furthermore, there was 
danger from savages and from wild animals. Washington 
went on his way and stopped first at Venango, where he 
was instructed to go to the commander of the district, who 
was at Lebceuf. Washington presented the claims of the 
English, and the French commander politely but firmly 
explained that the French had a prior claim which they 
would not give up. After Washington had left, the com- 



120 AMERICAN HISTORY 

mander turned and remarked to one of his companions that 
he had never seen, even at the French court at Versailles, 
any one so graceful in courtesy as this " young backwoods- 
man." 

Dinwiddie's Decision. — When Washington returned to 
Virginia and delivered his message to Dinwiddie, the gover- 
nor determined to force the matter. In January of the 
next year he wrote to Lord Halifax that he had decided to 
send out immediately two hundred men to protect those 
already sent out by the Ohio Company to build a fort, and 
to resist any attempts on them. " I have commission'd 
Major George Washington, the Bearer hereof, to com- 
mand." The governor offered bounties of land to any one 
who would enlist in the enterprise. He also invited aid of 
the other colonies in the plan, but North Carolina was the 
only one that offered assistance. England allowed the 
use of regular troops from New York and the Carolinas. 

The First Engagement. — A little company of English, 
led by a man named Trent, had just begun the construction 
of a fort in western Pennsylvania at the junction of the 
Allegheny and Monongahela rivers, when the French and 
their Indian allies seized it and finished it, calling it Du- 
quesne after the governor of Canada. When Washington 
reached the site of Great Meadows near Duquesne, he was 
met by the French under Jumonville, with whom he had 
an engagement which lasted fifteen minutes. The Virgin- 
ians lost one and had two wounded ; the French lost ten 
and had twenty-one taken prisoners. Among the dead 
was Jumonville. When the French received news of this 
defeat, they gathered reinforcements and went forward to 
make another attack. Washington had taken another 
position, and here he built Fort Necessity, where he was 
besieged by the French and forced to give up. Washington 
returned home without having accomplished the desired 
end. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 121 

Its Effect. — It now looked as if the French would surely 
have undisputed control of the entire western country. 
But Dinwiddie persistently urged England to assist in 
recovering the ground, and finally, when William Pitt was 
made Prime Minister and saw the full situation, he planned 
to send regular aid to the Americans. 

The Albany Congress. — It was generally known that 
the French were making preparations to carry on a regular 
war in the new country, and all of the English colonies 
grew interested in the reports. Benjamin Franklin pro- 
posed a meeting of delegates from the colonies to be held in 
Albany. This was known as the Albany Congress. Frank- 
lin strongly urged the formation of a Union of all the colo- 
nists for joint protection and prepared a plan consisting of a 
President-General appointed and paid by the king, and a 
Grand Council to be elected by the colonial assemblies 
with full power to make treaties with the Indians, build 
forts, appoint military officers, raise troops, and levy taxes 
for these purposes. The plan was unanimously adopted by 
the Albany Congress; but, when it was presented to the 
colonists and the king, both rejected it — the former, be- 
cause it was too aristocratic and gave too much power to 
the king, and the latter, because it gave too much power to 
the people. The colonists were at least united on the ques- 
tion that war was imminent. 

War Declared. — The formal declaration of war was 
made ; and, in the early spring, Braddock arrived at Alexan- 
dria. He was an able English general who had seen much 
service on the Continent. Braddock called a conference of 
the governors of New York, Massachusetts, Virginia, and 
Maryland. They planned the following campaign : 

First, to capture Fort Duquesne, the key to the Ohio River. 
Second, to hold Niagara, the entrance to the Iroquois country and 
fur trade of the Great Lakes. 

Third, to secure Ticonderoga and Crown Point, two forts that 



122 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



controlled the route to Canada by way of the Hudson River and Lake 
Champlain. 

Fourth, to attack Louisburg, the stronghold guarding the fishing 
district. 

Braddock undertook the attack against Fort Duquesne. 
He had two English regiments, some Virginians under Wash- 
ington, and about fifty war-painted Indian scouts. The 
way leading through the woods and over the mountains 




The Fall of Braddock. 

was long and difficult. Braddock lost much time in level- 
ing roads and building bridges. It was almost two months 
before he reached the neighborhood of Duquesne. In the 
meanwhile, the French had sent runners out to all of the 
Indian tribes in the northwest and had collected an army 
of expert backwoods fighters. 

The English Attack against Fort Duquesne. — On July 
9, the foes met and began fighting. The English " red- 
coats " were " mowed down like a field of poppies," and in 
the confusion many Virginians were killed by the reckless 
firing of the British regulars. Washington estimated that 
two thirds of them were killed and wounded in this way. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 123 

Braddock was determined to carry out his own plans, which 
were not practical ; and, while he showed personal bravery, 
riding back and forth among his men, and having four horses 
shot from under him, yet the whole affair was a complete 
failure, and Braddock himself received wounds from which 
he died. Washington covered the retreat of the soldiers 
to the Virginia settlements and Duquesne remained in the 
hands of the French. Thus the first part of the plan was a 
failure. 

The French Advantage. — The French had found, on 
the field near Fort Duquesne, papers revealing the whole 




An Acadian Farm. 

plan of campaign of the English ; so, when General Shirley 
went on toward Niagara, he discovered that the French 
were ahead of him and that their forces greatly outnumbered 
his ; hence, after building an outpost at Oswego, he returned 
toward Albany. 

The Second English Loss. — When William Johnson, an 
experienced frontiersman, was made commander of the 
expedition against Ticonderoga, he made every preparation 
to make a successful attack, but as was the case of the 
Niagara plan, the French knew of his coming and their com- 
mander, Dieskau, with nearly four thousand French regu- 
lars, Canadians, and Indian allies had made suitable de- 



124 AMERICAN HISTORY 

fenses. Johnson determined upon an attack, however. 
Although Dieskau was defeated and taken prisoner, yet 
Johnson was unable to hold the position ; and, failing to 
take Crown Point, he fell back and built Fort William Henry 
on the southern shores of Lake George. 

In the north and east operations against the French were 
well-nigh futile. This period is spoken of as " two years 
of failure." 

The Acadians. — It was about this time that the English 
were guilty of a most unwarranted act of cruelty. When 
Acadia was ceded to the British at the close of Queen 
Anne's War, and was renamed Nova Scotia, many of the 
inhabitants of this district were desirous of moving over 
into the French domain, so as not to be under the British 
rule. But the governor, on the ground that the whole 
place would be depopulated, persuaded them to remain 
against their will. They were given protection and all 
went well for almost forty years. 

Now they were required to take the oath of allegiance to 
the English king. This they refused to do. Immediately 
the British commander seized all of " their houses, lands, 
cattle," forced the unhappy people on board of English 
ships, and carried them to various English settlements 
along the Atlantic seaboard from Maine to Georgia. In 
many instances families were separated and the poor unfor- 
tunate people, in a strange land with foreign language and 
customs prevailing, were utterly discomforted. Some of 
them found their way to France, others to San Domingo, 
and a few wandered into the Southland and found a refuge 
in Louisiana, which by this time had become a Spanish 
province. Here they remained and many of their descend- 
ants may still be found among the southwestern parishes 
of this state. Longfellow's poem, Evangeline, is founded 
upon this event. 

Fort Duquesne again Attacked. — After the defeat of 



THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 



125 



Braddock's army near Fort Duq.uesne, the French with their 
Indian allies continued to overrun the western country. 
The French commander of this district wrote to the home 
government : " I have succeeded in ruining the adjacent 
provinces, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, driving 
off the inhabitants and totally destroying the settlements, 
over a tract of country, thirty leagues wide. The enemy 
has lost more since the battle than on the day of his defeat." 




Embarkation of the Acadians. 



The Surrender. — Washington fully realized the distress 
of the frontier settlements, and undertook to stay the in- 
roads of the French. For four years he steadily worked to 
organize forces for protection and erect forts to hold the 
enemy in check. It was a tedious, thankless task, for Din- 
widdie had grown dissatisfied with Washington and it was 
difficult to get the governor's support and cooperation. 
Finally Pitt reorganized the armies at home and sent aid 
to the colonists. He directed General Forbes, a Scotch 
officer, to Virginia, and he, with Washington's aid, made 



126 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



another attack upon Fort Duquesne and forced its sur- 
render. 

The Siege of Louisburg. — About the same time Pitt 
sent a great fleet under Admiral Boscawen and Generals 
Amherst and Wolfe against the fortress of Louisburg. It 
fell within six weeks, and five thousand French soldiers 
surrendered. 
An attack upon Ticonderoga was a failure. 
Quebec. — Wolfe now planned an assault upon Quebec, 

the most powerful posi- 
tion that the French 
possessed. Quebec is 
located upon a high bluff 
on the St. Lawrence 
River and almost sur- 
rounded by a steep wall 
of solid rock. The 
French commander, 
Montcalm, had pro- 
tected it with well- 
placed artillery and six- 
teen thousand soldiers. 
For three months Wolfe 
made untiring efforts to 
find a position where he 
might make an attack, but he was unsuccessful. Winter 
was coming on and the time was short. 

Finally, late one evening, Wolfe discovered a narrow, 
zigzag path winding up the steep bluffs. That night he 
had his boats put out their lights ; and, silently in the dark- 
ness, he drifted down close to the path and landed his men. 
Wolfe led his men ; and, speaking French to the solitary 
guards, forced his way up the steep path before a signal 
could be given. Early in the morning, the English army 
spread out in battle array on the heights of Abraham in the 




General Montcalm. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 



127 



rear of the city. Montcalm quickly rearranged his forces. 
Here the great battle began. Wolfe and Montcalm were 
both fatally wounded. The victory went to the English. 
Nowhere had greater valor and more unselfish bravery 
been shown on both sides than in the severe battle of Quebec. 
Profound admiration was shown for both commanders, who 
had laid down their lives for the cause of their country. 
On the spot of the battlefield stands a monument erected 




The Death of General Wolfe. 



by the Canadians of a later day, which bears this significant 
sentiment : " Valor gave a united death, History a united 
fame, Posterity a united monument." 

With the fall of Quebec in 1759, French supremacy in 
America steadily declined ; and, in the next year, when the 
city of Montreal surrendered to the English, all of France's 
power in America passed away. 

This great war was not confined to America ; the English 
and French with other nations were engaged in a disastrous 



128 AMERICAN HISTORY 

European conflict ; and, furthermore, English and French 
interests in India were involved. 

Treaty of Peace, 1763. — When the final treaty of peace 
was signed, the map of North America was completely 
changed. England received all of Canada and the adja- 
cent islands, except two small fishing stations, and the land 
east of the Mississippi, except the isle of Orleans. Spain 
ceded Florida to England in exchange for Havana and the 
Philippine Islands, which had been taken by an English 
fleet during the war. France also ceded to Spain the entire 
Louisiana territory in compensation for services rendered 
and also in exchange for European property. Besides 
these changes, England received from France the latter's 
claim to trading posts in far-away India. This war cost 
France the loss of all her vast colonial possessions that had 
involved so many lives, so much expense and labor in 
developing; and England laid the foundations of her 
present world-wide empire. 

Topical Outline 

Struggle for Supremacy. 
I. Conflicts over Boundaries. 

1. Fur Trade. 

2. Fisheries. 

II. European Conflicts in America. 

1. King William's War (English Succession), 1689-1697. 
Scene: New England, New York, Canada. 

2. Queen Anne's War (Spanish Succession), 1702-1713. 
Scene: New England Frontier and Canada, Georgia Frontier 

and Florida. 

3. King George's War (Austrian Succession), 1 744-1 748. 
Scene: New England and Canada. 

4. French and Indian War (Seven Years' War), 1 754-1763. 
Scene: Ohio Valley, Michigan and Niagara boundaries. 
New York, New England and Canada. 

III. Treaty of 1763. 

IV. Result : England Supreme in North America. 



THE STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY 129 

Review Questions 

1. What were the conditions in America that led to a conflict 
between the French and the English ? 

2. What territory did the French claim in the New World? 

3. What territory did the English claim? 

4. What territory did the Spanish claim? 

5. What were the conditions in Europe that led to King William's 
War and to Queen Anne's ? 

6. Show how the overlapping claims of the French and English 
led to the French and Indian War. 

7. Describe Washington's journey to the French fort on the 
Allegheny river. Was the mission successful ? 

8. What did Governor Dinwiddie decide to do? 

9. Give an account of the first engagement between the French 
and English. 

10. What was the plan of the Albany Congress? 

11. What was the British plan of campaign in the French and 
Indian W T ar? 

12. Describe the campaign against Fort Duquesne. 

13. What happened to the Acadians during the French and English 
conflict ? 

14. Give an account of the capture of Quebec. 

15. Give the date of the treaty of peace. How did this treaty 
change the map of North America ? 

References 

Fiske : New France and New England. 

MacDonald : Documentary Source Book of American History. 



CHAPTER VIII 

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC CONDITIONS BEFORE 
THE REVOLUTION 

English Colonies now Secure. — Between the founding 
of Jamestown, in 1607, and the treaty of Paris, in 1763, the 
thirteen English colonies had grown into sturdy settlements 
whose inhabitants took pride in their development and who 
now looked upon America as their permanent home. 

Number of Population. — At the close of the French and 
Indian War there were upwards of a million people living 
in the colonies. Massachusetts had the largest number, 
having a population of perhaps 200,000 ; and Georgia, the 
youngest colony, had about 10,000. 

Kinds of Population. — All the population except the 
American Indians and the African negroes were Europeans 
or descendants of European ancestors. For the most part 
they were of English stock, although many other nation- 
alities, as Scotch-Irish, Dutch, Swedes, Germans, and 
French, were represented. Few, if any, Italians or Spanish 
were found in the country and none of the Slavonian people 
had found their way into the New World. Hundreds of 
people had sought a refuge in America from religious and 
political persecution ; so, very early the country was looked 
upon as the " land of freedom." 

Distribution of Population. — Not only were there larger 
privileges regarding religion and politics, but there were 
many opportunities to secure independent homes and to 
make a wholesome living. The population by nationalities 

130 



CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 131 

was distributed somewhat as follows : New England, 
English ; New York and northern New Jersey, Dutch and 
English ; Pennsylvania and Delaware, English, Germans, 
Swedes, and Finns, and among the English settlers in 
^Philadelphia were some French Huguenots ; in Maryland 
and Virginia, English, Germans, and Scotch-Irish ; in North 
and South Carolina, English, Scotch-Irish, Huguenots, and 
some Germans ; in Georgia, English, Scotch, and Moravians. 
In the new annexations of England in America, we find in 
Canada, the French ; and in Florida, Spanish subjects. 

We must fully realize that the cities were, for the most 
part, very small and that the population in many instances 
was scattered ; so that many of the grave problems that face 
the American people to-day in regard to the immigration 
of foreigners into this country did not play an important 
part in the questions of that time. 

Religion. — With the exception of Maryland, where the 
Roman Catholics settled, all of the English colonies were 
dominated by Protestants of different denominations. The 
Puritan faith, in various forms, was strong in New England 
and the Dutch Reformed Church was found in New York 
and New Jersey. The Quakers prevailed in Pennsylvania, 
although there were some Lutherans, and, wherever the 
royal province form of government existed, the Anglican 
church became the state religion. In the Carolinas and 
Georgia, besides the Anglicans, were found many Presby- 
terians, Baptists, and Methodists. 

The Influence of the Church. — Throughout the colonies 
there was much larger religious freedom than in any of the 
countries of Europe. In the early colonial days, religious 
customs were carried out with great earnestness, and church 
rules were obeyed to the letter of the law. Each church 
arranged its own discipline, and often publicly tried and 
expelled members who broke the laws of the church. The 
power of the minister among his congregation was very 



132 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



great ; and, as he represented one of the most highly edu- 
cated of the men of his community, his advice was fre- 
quently asked by the governor, judges, and those in 
authority. 

Sunday Laws. — Sunday laws were enforced in all the. 
colonies. Under these laws no buying nor selling was 

allowed, and all public 
work ceased on the Sab- 
bath day. Even within 
doors as little work was 
done as possible. Satur- 
day was recognized as 
baking and cleaning day 
so that all members of the 
household might be free 
from the care of house- 
keeping in order to attend 
church. 

Church Buildings. — 
Many of the early 
churches were very 
simple, plain buildings, 
modestly furnished and 
lacking the rich orna- 
mentation of the Old 
World churches and 
cathedrals. They were 
poorly heated and uncomfortable in winter, but discomfort 
did not deter the earnest worshipers, who frequently put on 
extra wraps and carried little pocket or foot stoves with 
them. These latter consisted of small oblong boxes with 
perforations in them, so lined as to accommodate a piece 
of lighted peat or punk wood which would burn for a long 
time and give out a slow but steady heat. 

The Service. — The ministers seemed to feel it a duty to 




St. Michael's, Charleston, 
in 1761. 



CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 133 

preach serious sermons, bearing upon the responsibility 
of a deep, personal religion. Sometimes the preacher would 
talk for long periods of time. Men, women, and children 
were warned to be attentive ; and, if a man fell asleep during 
the sermon, he was rapped upon the head by an officer, who 
would also rouse a drowsy woman by tickling her nose with 
a rabbit's tail fastened to a long pole. And woe to the 
youngster who might be found giggling, for he would re- 
ceive a sharp twinge of the ear and be reminded to be more 
polite. There were no musical instruments in the churches, 
but the congregations were trained in hymn and psalm sing- 
ing ; and, in the Episcopal church, choirs led the hymns and 
chants, so that there was cordial cooperation in this part 
of the service. 

Seating. — Quite often the men and the women sat on 
different sides of the church, and frequently the members 
of a congregation were seated according to their social rank 
in the community. For instance, the governor and his 
family were given the most choice seats and so on down the 
scale of position until the servants were granted space in 
the rear seats or up in the gallery. 

Salem Witchcraft. — During the early history of Massa- 
chusetts, a strange belief beset some of the people of this 
colony and caused great distress. It arose through the 
idea of a child of a certain minister, who claimed to be be- 
witched by an Indian servant. Other persons seemed to be 
affected in the same way, and the belief in witches became 
a mania. Many persons firmly adhered to their convictions 
that the strange maladies (such as hysteria) were caused by 
the spell put upon the sufferer by some one with an evil 
spirit. Even some of the most learned men of the age were 
advocates of the belief. Many innocent and unfortunate 
persons were accused of the art of witchcraft and were 
tried and punished, more than nineteen were executed, 
and a number were thrown into prison. The delusion 



134 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



was finally dispelled and disappeared as suddenly as it 
had begun. 

Education. — As early as 1619, a college was started at 
Henrico City in Virginia. This school was designed to 
educate the Indians, and was the first American College. 

Unfortunately, it was de- 
stroyed during the Indian mas- 
sacre of 1622. A public 
school was also started at 
Charles City, Virginia, in 
1 62 1. It is said that the 
Dutch established the first 
permanent school system in 
their colony of New Amster- 
dam (New York) in 1633, that 
two years later the people of 
Massachusetts opened a regu- 
lar public school, and that in 
1636 this community voted a 
sum to found a college. 

The Purpose of Education. 
— The colonists early felt that 
in order to be independent in 
thought and word, one should 
be able to read and under- 
stand the Bible and the laws 
of the land. To this end, in all 
of the Puritan communities, 
common schools were established almost as early as their 
churches. In many of the towns, the authorities went so far 
as to make compulsory school attendance laws and to re- 
quire the parents of children to send them to school under 
penalty of line and imprisonment. The early primary 
schools were soon improved by adding higher classes ; and 
within a few years what was known as Latin schools 




In School. 



CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 



135 



(high schools) were established in many of the New 
England states. 

Education in Penn's Lands. — The Quakers were also 
strong advocates of education ; and, as we have noted, 
William Penn in his instructions to his governors ordered 
that schools should be opened as early as possible. In 
Maryland, the Catholics opened up a church school as soon 
as the first settlement was begun and continued this work. 



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The New England Primer. 



Up to this day the state of Maryland is noted for its 
excellent religious schools. 

In the South. — In the southern colonies, where the popu- 
lation was scattered because of the plantation system, it 
became almost impossible to open up public or district 
schools, as they were called. The pupils were too far away 
from a common center to attend, hence it became necessary 
for the wealthy planters to secure individual teachers or 
tutors and governesses for their children. Sometimes the 
planters of several neighboring estates would employ a 



136 



AMERICAN HISTORY 




William and Mary College. 




Harvard College in Eighteenth Century. 



CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 



137 



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teacher to open a school in their neighborhood. It was such 
a school as this that Washington attended in Westmoreland 
County, Virginia. 

The Universal Course of Study. — In all of the old- 
fashioned schools, the course of study was limited to what 
was known as the three R's, and furniture consisted of 
only simple wooden benches and long forms against the 
wall where the pupils might stand or sit to make their copies. 
They used pens made of quills and ink made from berries. 
But in those early days 
the boys and girls learned 
such a variety of things 
out of school that their 
hands were soon taught 
many of the manual arts 
that we have introduced 
in our regular schools. 
Their training was more 
complete than one would 
imagine from the limited 
number of studies that 
were taught. 

Colleges. — Harvard 
College of Massachusetts 
was the oldest college 

founded in America (1636), and William and Mary 
College of Virginia was the oldest college of the South 
(1693). As the colonies grew in population and wealth, 
each in turn opened up colleges which became the basis 
of the great universities of our country. 

Newspapers. — As education progressed, the people felt 
a need to express their views on the questions of the day 
or to enlarge their ideas by broader reading ; hence, in some 
of the more populous cities, newspapers were started. At 
first these were very small sheets, and lacked the varied 




A Printing Press used in the Colo- 
nial Times. 



138 AMERICAN HISTORY 

scope of information found in our modern papers ; but they 
were the beginning of a means to express public opinion, 
and during the American Revolutionary period were very 
active in the work of keeping current events before the 
American people. 

Literature. — While there were some literary productions 
in the early colonial times, these were not varied nor exten- 
sive. The mother country furnished a rich and abundant 
store of good works, which were read in the colonies with as 
much interest as in England. Milton and the writers of 
the Commonwealth were in great demand in New England, 
and Addison and Steele were favorite authors in Virginia. 

Printing presses were not numerous in the New World, as 
England laid a very heavy export duty on these machines, 
and, furthermore, the colonists were so deeply concerned 
with physical labor and the interests of homemaking that 
they had little leisure for literary work. Among some of the 
clergymen we find a few authors of great merit as, for in- 
stance, Jonathan Edwards, who wrote most profoundly on 
the Freedom of the Human Will, and Cotton and Increase 
Mather, who contributed some important works on religious 
topics. During the Revolutionary period more active 
literary work was taken up by the American people, espe- 
cially along the line of state papers. This work continued 
after the formation of the new government and became 
one of the bright pages in our national literature. 

Industries — Agriculture. — As is. the case in all new 
countries, the early pioneers became interested in agricul- 
ture. In some of the sections new and unusual products 
were found that soon attracted the settlers. This was 
especially the case of tobacco, Indian corn or maize, and 
potatoes. These were unknown to the Europeans except 
in a limited way, and their culture became more extensive 
as the demand for them increased. 

There seemed to be a special demand for tobacco, which 



CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 



139 



made this product a popular and profitable article of agri- 
culture. In the tidewater districts of Virginia and Mary- 
land the land was exceedingly fertile and well adapted to 
the growth of tobacco ; so, very early plantations were laid 
out and vast fields of the plant cultivated. Later the 
Carolinas and Georgia took up the culture. Within the 
seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, tobacco became 
the staple product of the South. Plantations ranged from 



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one to fifty thousand acres, and the average income from a 
tobacco plantation was from fifteen to thirty thousand 
dollars a year. 

Maize, or Indian corn, grew readily in all sections of the 
country, and as it proved a wholesome article of diet, it was 
cultivated in abundance. Corn was also found to be whole- 
some and nutritious for cattle and hogs ; hence it literally 
became the " staff of life " to the early settlers. 

Sweet potatoes were raised in limited quantities and found 
palatable. The tuber that afterwards became known as 



140 AMERICAN HISTORY 

the " Irish potato " was introduced into the country from 
South America and proved a very excellent article of diet. 
As the settlers arrived from England, they brought with 
them such cereals as rye, barley, wheat, and oats, which, it 
was discovered, would flourish in this country as well as 
at home. There were a number of fruits and berries native 
to the country, and these, with the imported kinds, soon 
gave a variety of fruit to the settlers. Squash, pumpkins, 
beans, and melons, that were well known to the Indians, 
were also used. 

Game was abundant and fish were found on the coast 
and in the rivers and streams. Cattle raising became a 
distinct industry, as the land afforded fine pasturage and 
wide ranges. We read of settlers being urged to bring over 
sheep and cows, as the land was especially adapted to them. 

Sugar cane and cotton were not planted in any quantities 
until the beginning of the nineteenth century, but rice was 
introduced into the colonies in the early days and rapidly 
became a reliable article of diet as well as export. In some 
of the Southern Colonies great quantities of indigo were 
raised. This plant afforded an excellent blue dye that was 
largely exported. 

Commerce. — Fishing became one of the most important 
industries of the New England settlers, and it was this trade 
that laid the foundation of the commercial interest of these 
colonies. All around the New England coasts abundant 
fisheries of cod and mackerel were found. The cod was 
especially valuable as an article of export. It was dried 
and salted and shipped in quantities to Europe and the 
West Indies. Just as tobacco became the standard of 
value in Virginia, so the codfish became the medium of 
exchange in New England. 

Besides these fish, whaling became a most advanta- 
geous occupation. For many years numbers of whales 
were found not far from shore; but later, when the 



CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 



141 



catch became reduced, the fishermen built stout, heavy- 
bottomed boats and went as far north as Davis Strait and 
the Antarctic Seas in search of these profitable fish. There 
was a great demand for whalebone and whale oil in Europe. 
It was estimated that the carcass of one of these huge fish 
would bring as much as eighty dollars. 

Lumbering was also profitable. It was said that the 
first cargo taken from this country to England was a ship- 
load of clapboards or split timber. The splendid forests of 




A Whaler's Outfit. 



pine and oak also offered excellent material for shipbuild- 
ing. There was quite an export trade in tar, pitch, and 
turpentine, and at all times furs and peltries were in de- 
mand. 

Manufactures. — In all of the colonies there was a 
certain amount of what might be termed home or domestic 
manufactures. Most of the wool and linen were raised at 
home and carded and spun into thread, and in many of the 
homes spinning wheels were common. In some of the 
houses a special room was built for a loom, where the 
housewife spun many yards of linsey-woolsey and other 



142 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



homespun for the use of her family. In all the villages, too, 
there was a regular weaver, who took orders for household 
weaving. Some of these men were so expert that it was . 
reckoned that their cloth was equal to that made on the 
best looms in England. It was said that the serge and 
broadcloth made in Philadelphia and Long Island were as 
superior as could be bought abroad. 

Shoes and hats were also manufactured, and if it had not 
been for laws restricting the making of these articles, so as to 
protect the English manufactures, the American industries 

would have advanced 
very rapidly. Dyes 
were made from bark of 
trees and from certain 
weeds, as the goldenrod, 
sumach, pokeberry; and 
indigo was used for blue 
tones. 

As leather was much 
in demand, a number of 
tanneries was opened, 
and in order to encour- 
age this industry, laws 
were passed requiring persons to save the hides of animals 
that they had killed and to bring the skins to a tannery 
under penalty of a fine of sixty dollars. This industry 
was of great importance, as not only shoes, but breeches, 
leggings, vests, doublets, and even women's skirts and 
aprons were sometimes made of leather. 

The colonists on the coast refined salt by evaporating 
sea water ; and, as early as 1623, salt vats were set up in the 
New England district. A limited amount of iron ore was 
obtained from- some of the mill ponds ; and this was made 
into nails and tacks ; but England very shortly prohibited 
this manufacture entirely. 




A Spinning Wheel. 



CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 143 

As the great industrial movement went on in England, 
and her people were forced to give up farming because of the 
limited acres of land and the increase in population, her 
statesmen encouraged the development of what was known 
as the factory system. That is, they gave monopoly priv- 
ileges to certain men who would set up a factory for the 
manufacture of special articles and then they forbade any 
one else to compete with them. It was recognized that 
America was a splendid farming country, hence many laws 
were passed prohibiting the people of the English colonies 
from manufacturing those things which were made in 
England. 

Social Life. — The social life of the colonists varied ac- 
cording to the occupations, wealth, city or country environ- 
ment, and rules of their respective churches. 

All over Europe society was divided into classes according 
to birth, occupation, and wealth, hence it was very easy for 
the settlers in the new country to assume the old order of 
things. In New England, the occupation and church rela- 
tion of a person largely determined his social position. 
Pupils were seated in school according to the occupation 
of the parent, and the list of this latter arrangement was 
posted in the halls of the colleges and publicly known. 

Civil positions, like those of judges, tax collectors, sheriffs, 
etc., were not open to men whose parents had a humble oc- 
cupation. These undemocratic conditions prevailed until 
after the American Revolution. 

In districts where there were great extremes of wealth 
and poverty, as, in the South, between the wealthy planter 
and the " poor whites," there was necessarily a wide differ- 
ence socially; the rich lived in large commodious homes 
attended by servants, enjoying the luxuries of living sump- 
tuously and dressing elegantly ; the latter were limited in 
every way by poverty. Environment played an important 
part in fixing social obligations, as persons living far apart 



144 



AMERICAN HISTORY 




CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 145 

in country districts were not likely to become acquainted, 
and among those living in the cities and towns who usually 
came into daily contact with one another, a certain social 
status was established. Common political and business 
interests brought them together, and the neighborly instinct 
of people was fostered by the dependence of one upon an- 
other through friendship and trust. 

Amusements. — As far as entertainments were concerned, 
the church, probably, more than any other factor, deter- 
mined the nature of the festivity. In all of the colonies 
where the Puritan faith dominated, dancing parties and 
theaters were not recognized, as the church had laid a ban 
upon these. Therefore amusements were confined to so- 
cial gatherings of a different character. In rural districts 
husking bees, where a group of neighbors would gather at a 
home and help the farmer by husking or shelling his winter 
corn, were common and enjoyable social gatherings. Be- 
sides, the freewill work, pleasant talk, simple songs, and 
homely resfreshments made the evening pass quickly. 
Quilting bees were common among the women. In this 
instance, several housewives would meet to help " get out a 
quilt," and in an afternoon they would be able to put in the 
stitches so fast and sure that the quilt could be removed from 
its frames and easily finished. The work was not delayed 
by the bright chatting that went on, and the refreshments 
furnished by the hostess made the busy evening a pleasant 
occasion. 

^ The most formal entertainment held in the colonies was 
" the ball." It was usually given in honor of some great 
event, as the inauguration of a governor or the celebration 
of some holiday. It consisted of a formal reception held in 
the town hall or some great house and was followed by 
dancing. Beautiful and elaborate costumes were seen; 
men and women often appeared in rich apparel of velvet and 
satin as gorgeous and expensive as those seen in England or 



146 AMERICAN HISTORY 

France. In Virginia, card and dancing parties were com- 
mon, and it was often customary to precede these by a formal 
dinner. In all of the Southern colonies out-of-door sports 
were engaged in. Fox hunting was especially popular. 
At different seasons county fairs were held, and, at the con- 
clusion of the sales, out-of-door sports and contests were 
enjoyed. Prizes were offered, and lively competition ensued. 

It was not until after the American Revolution that 
theaters were opened and troupes of actors were seen in 
regular plays. 

Childhood in Colonial Days. — There were many things 
to interest and occupy the little children of colonial times. 
The new country, with its wide, open woods and broad 
fields, afforded opportune and attractive playgrounds for 
young people. The boys engaged in games of ball and 
racquet and target practice was a most popular sport. 
Fishing and hunting took the form of exciting amusements. 
Many boys understood how to trap game, and the forests 
were full of new and unexpected experiences. In the win- 
ter, snowballing, sleighing, and skating were common; 
and, in the early fall, it was great sport to gather nuts and 
wild grapes. 

The girls, too, had their games, and frequently played the 
old-fashioned ring games, using the quaint English verses 
beginning London Bridge has fallen Down and King 
William was King James's Son. There was one melody 
that they often sang that had a note of sadness in it when 
we realize its meaning. We refer to Oats, Sweet Peas, and 
Barley Grow. This little song was based upon the incident 
of the early English law that gave rich sheep owners the 
right to inclose the land and thus shut out the small farmer. 
When this old law was revived, great numbers of English 
emigrants came to America to seek new farm lands because 
it was dolefully said that in England " Nobody knows 
where oats, sweet peas, and barley grows." 



CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 



147 



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In colonial times, both boys and girls were taught to work. 
Most of the people had to work early and late to make a 
living, and every little assistance counted for something ; 
hence, there was great need for family cooperation. Many 
little tots were taught to shell beans and string slices of 
apples for drying, dip candles, and gather nuts and berries. 
Their school hours were much 
longer by day than ours, although 
the sessions were often shorter. 
The reason for having Saturday 
exempt from school duties was not 
to give the boys and girls a holiday, 
but to grant an opportunity to help 
with household duties. Every boy 
had his Saturday chores, as gather- 
ing wood or taking corn to the 
mill, and the girls were required to 
assist with the baking and cleaning, 
so that Sunday might be known as 
a real day of rest. 

Girls were often required to do 
a special amount of work that was 
known as a " stint." Sometimes 
this consisted of a certain length of 
knitting, or so much hand sewing 
or spinning. We are told that little girls of seven were 
often so skillful that they could make by hand, under direc- 
tion, their own undergarments. Sometimes the girls were 
taught to make fancy stitches ; and for this purpose it was 
quite common to work what was called a " Sampler," which 
consisted of a square of canvas upon which samples of 
stitches were shown by working mottoes and one's name 
and age. 

There is no doubt that life was often very serious for the 
little people of long ago ; for it was a period of great responsi- 



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A Sampler. 



148 AMERICAN HISTORY 

bility, a time of earnest manual labor, and an era of indi- 
vidual development. To-day we have grown so used to 
things made by machinery that many of us have lost the 
cunning handicraft of our ancestors. We believe, however, 
that an " all round " development is not secured unless we 
train the hand and eye to accurate work ; and for this 
reason, as well as for the purpose of making our homes more 
comfortable, we are teaching in our schools what is known 
as household economy, or the art of making useful things. 
But it matters not whether we are of the long-ago time, 
or of the very present, we must know that strong, earnest 
work on the part of a people will surely make that nation a 
vigorous, independent, capable people, and we must fully 
realize that if every person in the community, young and 
old, tries to do something well, that the world will be 
richer for this earnest life, and those who follow will honor 
the efforts of that age. 

Topical Outline 

Social and Economic Conditions Before the Revolution. 
I. Population, 
i. Kinds. 
2. Distribution. 
II. Religion. 

i. Influence of Church. 
2. Sunday Laws. 

III. Salem Witchcraft. 

IV. Education. 
i. Purpose. 

2. Common Schools. 

3. Colleges. 

V. Newspapers and Literature. 
VI. Industries. 

1. Agriculture. 

2. Commerce. 

3. Manufactures. 
VII. Social Life. 



CONDITIONS BEFORE THE REVOLUTION 149 

VIII. Amusements. 
IX. Child Life in Colonial Days. 

Review Questions 



1. What nationalities were represented in the English colonies 
prior to the American Revolution ? 

2. What were the principal religious denominations found in the 
colonies ? 

3. What was the influence of the church ? Did religious tolera- 
tion prevail in the colonies ? 

4. What was meant by the Salem Witchcraft ? 

5. Tell something of the early attempts to establish schools in the 
colonies. 

6. What were the first colleges founded in the North and in the 
South ? 

7. Who were some of the early writers in America? 

8. What were the principal industries of the American pioneers? 

9. Tell something of child life in colonial days. What food did 
they eat ? What clothing did they wear ? What kind of houses did 
they live in ? 

10. What were some of the games that the colonial children 
played ? 

n. What was meant by a stint, a sampler? 

References 

Fiske : Old Virginia and Her Neighbors. 
Coffin : Old Times in the Colonies, 



CHAPTER IX 
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Causes for Separation from Great Britain. — The causes 
of the American Revolution were both remote and imme- 
diate, and in each case they were closely related. We shall 
consider now some of the influences that grew into definite 
causes. 

First: The Political Training of the Colonists. When 
the early colonizing companies planned to develop Amer- 
ica, they secured charters which gave to the individual 
settlers many rights that were granted only to a certain 
class of landowners in Europe. These privileges came at 
a time when there was great religious and political oppres- 
sion in Europe, and they attracted many persons who were 
denied the right of self-government and who felt a desire 
to have larger independence in their religious, political, 
and commercial plans. 

In America there were no thickly settled communities 
where individual rights were limited because * of over- 
crowded population. Most of the settlers acquired land 
easily, and in many instances could make personal selection 
of the sites for their homes. There were no fish or game 
laws to restrict their livelihood, and the rich, natural re- 
sources of the new land gave them an opportunity for mak- 
ing an independent living. They also had a right to dis- 
cuss plans for the good of the community, and to make 
the local laws. These conditions naturally led to inde- 
pendent opinions and trained men to think for themselves. 
Many of the minor offices of government were open to 
them, and the mode of election to office rather than by ap- 

150 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 151 

pointment became customary. Thus men were trained in 
politics. 

Education was liberal in the colonies. It was usual for 
most men of a community to have an intelligent under- 
standing of the laws of Great Britain. They grew self- 
reliant in their interpretation of the laws and were shrewdly 
discriminating in their ideas of the power of Parliament 
at home and in the colonies. In every colony, at the 
opening of the Revolution, we find many public speakers 
skilled in argument and expert in solving political prob- 
lems pertaining to their interests. 

Second: Remoteness from England promotes Inde- 
pendence. Another reason for independence in the 
English colonies was the fact that the parent government 
was far removed from the settlers and immediate com- 
munication was limited. In many cases the settlers were 
obliged to act for themselves. This was particularly true 
in instances of Indian trade and Indian warfare and cases 
where speedy settlement of intercolonial interests were 
concerned. This privilege of acting for themselves natu- 
rally forced an independence upon the colonists that the 
English people at home could not secure. 

Again, it was often difficult for England to enforce laws 
in America that were intended for the entire kingdom. 
It was expensive and inconvenient to send to all of the 
scattered communities in America sufficient number of 
officers to carry out new regulations of trade and indus- 
tries. It was only when the colonies had grown in num- 
bers and in wealth and become important in England's 
national life that they were subject to more rigid regula- 
tions than formerly. It was because of this growth and 
development under conditions of freedom that they resisted 
the idea of loss of independence. 

Third: The National Debt gives Trouble in the Col- 
onies. When the treaty of 1763 was signed, England 



152 AMERICAN HISTORY 

began the policy of world-wide expansion that was to make 
her one of the most powerful and wealthy nations in the 
world. Her possessions, besides the American colonies, 
included Canada, British America, the district of Florida, 
and certain holdings in the West Indies and South America. 
In South Africa and far-off India, other colonial bases were 
laid, and English trading companies, under permission of 
the government, opened settlements in the Spice Islands. 

In all of the newly acquired lands there were many 
people who could neither speak nor understand the English 
language and whose religion and customs made colonial 
control difficult. In a moment, without warning, these 
new subjects might be up in open rebellion. In order to 
secure these provinces military governments were neces- 
sary. That is, experienced army officers and soldiers 
were needed to carry on British control. All of this re- 
quired great expense. 

Then there was another vast account to be considered ; 
namely, the debt caused by the war in America and on the 
continent. Soldiers were to be paid ; and those who had 
been killed, or injured, were to be listed on pension rolls. 

These and other items of the cost of the wars were prob- 
lems of finance that required both common sense and 
great tact to solve. But, unfortunately, George III. pos- 
sessed neither ; and in his efforts to meet the conditions 
of the times he made many errors, among which were his 
unfair control of Parliament, his unequal system of taxa- 
tion, and his arrogant attitude toward Anglo-American 
subjects. 

DEFINITE CAUSES OF THE WAR 

Revision of the Taxes. — Colonial affairs were in charge 
of a committee composed of members of the Privy Council, 
which was known as the Lords of Trades and Plantations. 
Sir Charles Townshend was appointed first lord of trade, 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 153 

and it fell to his lot to take charge of colonial affairs. 
Townshend believed that a strong force of British troops 
should be placed in each province as a safeguard against 
possible insurrection. His next purpose was to secure 
money to carry out this scheme. The king heartily 
indorsed the plan and Townshend set to work to put his 
ideas into effect in America. The English colonies on the 
Atlantic seaboard from Maine to Georgia declared against 
the presence of a standing army in America in times of 
peace, asserted their loyalty to the crown, and pledged 
their local militias in Indian outbreaks. Their protests 
were unheeded ; the military bases were organized ; and 
the enforcement of certain tax regulations was begun. 

Navigation Acts. — Among these was the reenactment 
of the Navigation Acts. These were acts regulating trade 
with England. The first, dating back to the time of 
Cromwell, had been passed in order to protect English 
commerce from the control of the Dutch. It declared that 
all goods shipped to the colonies were to be shipped on 
English vessels manned by English seamen. The act had 
been enforced but feebly, and there had been large impor- 
tations of goods into all of the colonies by Dutch, Spanish, 
and other vessels. During the French and Indian War, 
when there had been a great demand for supplies, England 
had completely ignored the law, and, in consequence, the 
colonies were actively engaged in exporting on these vessels 
large quantities of fish, tobacco, rice, and naval stores. 
To enforce the act would greatly interfere with the trade 
of the Americans, as England had neither ships nor mar- 
kets to handle the waiting cargoes ; yet, on the other 
hand, it would reduce the incoming goods that the colonists 
desired and raise the price of many of the necessities of 
life. 

Writs of Assistance. — The enforcement of the act 
caused serious indignation, and smuggling was resorted to 



i54 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



by many merchants. This prompted the issuance of 
Writs of Assistance. These were commissions granted to 
private individuals to enter a store, dwelling, or warehouse 
to search for smuggled goods. Many of these men made 
themselves very unpopular and the whole country rose 
against the act. James Otis, the collector of the customs 
in the port of Boston, resigned his position in order to speak 

against the Writs ; and 
finally, after many pro- 
tests, they were repealed. 
Another part of the 
Navigation Acts re- 
quired that no manu- 
factures could be carried 
on in the colonies that 
would interfere with the 
purchase of English- 
made goods. In some 
of the colonies excellent 
serge was made, and 
beaver and felt hats 
were manufactured that 
equaled any made in England. Some iron was made into 
articles of service and some grades of pottery were also 
manufactured. These and other industries were beginning 
to grow in importance ; and the English manufacturers who 
had purchased monopoly rights, that is, paid for the privi- 
lege of being the sole makers of certain articles, found out 
that the American factories would compete with them in 
this trade, especially in the West Indies, and urged the 
enforcement of the manufacturing clauses of the acts. 
This caused intense feeling, as there was a demand for the 
articles mentioned and the Americans found the trade 
profitable. 

Another phase of the Navigation Acts that was obnoxious 




James Otis. 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 155 

was the clause that prohibited the colonists from trading 
with one another. All of the coastwise trade had to be 
carried on in English ships manned by English sailors. 
While the Americans had but a limited number of trading 
vessels, it put these out of use and literally forbade the 
building of any other American boats. All of the above 
represented what the Americans termed as their " rights," 
and the enforcement of such laws was deemed unjust. In 
order to adjust the condition, England allowed bounties on 
some of the raw materials, as hemp, flax, and silk. This 
was of so little benefit that it failed entirely to quiet the 
feeling of discontent. 

It was clear to the Americans that the Navigation Acts 
simply meant : 

First, that the shipment of all goods through English ports secured 
an added revenue to the crown and the destruction of American trade. 

Second, that the prohibition of manufactures meant the benefit 
to English manufacturers and the stifling of American factory interests. 

Third, the extension of English shipowners' rights and the over- 
throw of the American shipping interests. 

In all, it meant higher prices for goods and the increased 
cost of living. Directly and indirectly, the Navigation 
Acts affected every person in America. 

Stamp Act. — The amount of money collected through 
the Navigation Acts was not sufficient to meet the expenses 
of colonial government, so another measure was passed by 
Parliament in order to secure an additional tax ; this was 
known as the Stamp Act. . Lord Grenville, Prime Minister, 
thought that one hundred thousand pounds, or five hun- 
dred thousand dollars a year, might be secured by a stamp 
tax. It had been customary to levy such taxes from time 
to time, and such an act was then in operation in Great 
Britain. It provided that all legal documents like li- 
censes, deeds, wills, and contracts should bear a revenue 
stamp, and further, that all books, newspapers, almanacs, 



i56 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



and playing cards should be stamped before selling. A fine 
of from twenty-five dollars to two hundred and fifty dol- 
lars was levied upon those who failed to use the stamp. 
And any attempt to counterfeit the stamp was punish- 
able by death. The stamps varied in cost from one penny 
to about fifty dollars. 

Although special agents were sent to America to sell the 
stamps and enforce the law requiring their use, yet the 
Stamp Act was a failure, as no one would buy the stamps. 
Men let their contracts go unrecorded and lawyers refused 
to use the stamps. Boxes of the stamps were burned 

and others thrown 
into the sea. In 
South Carolina, 
the courts were 
closed because the 
stamps could not 
be used, and in 
Boston the stamp 
distributor was 
forced to resign 
his office. In New 

York similar ac- 
Stamps oe 1765. don was ^^ 

and in every town along the coast from New England to 
Georgia the same opposition prevailed. 

While the tax was a serious burden to business interests, 
this was not the direct cause for opposition. It was the 
fact that a tax which should have been levied by local 
authority was levied by the English Parliament. It meant 
to the colonists that the right of local taxation was being 
taken from them. If the Stamp Act prevailed, at any 
time it might be possible to have other taxes of similar 
character imposed. The principle of local taxation had 
been one of the earliest privileges of the colonists, and 




THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 157 

it was a most serious thing to have this right taken 
from them. 

Accordingly, a congress of delegates from all of the 
colonies was called to meet in New York City. This was 
known as the Stamp Act Congress. After earnest discus- 
sion Benjamin Franklin was sent as colonial agent to Eng- 
land to appear before Parliament and urge its repeal. 
Franklin declared that the colonies would never submit to 
the act unless by force of arms. He added, " The Stamp 
Act says, that we shall have no commerce, make no ex- 
change of property with each other, neither purchase, nor 
grant, nor recover debts ; we shall neither marry, nor make 
our wills, unless we pay such and such sums ; and thus it 
is intended to extort our money from us, or ruin us by the 
consequences of refusing to pay it." 

The Stamp Act was repealed the next year. The colo- 
nists were overjoyed at the repeal. In South Carolina, 
the Assembly voted to erect a statue of William Pitt in 
memory of one " who exerted himself in defending the 
freedom of Americans, the true sons of England, by pro- 
moting a repeal of the Stamp Act in the year 1766. Time 
shall sooner destroy the mark of their esteem than erase 
from their minds their just sense of his patriotic virtues." 

To show their good will toward the English manufac- 
turers, the Quakers noted the repeal of the Stamp Act 
by celebrating the king's birthday by wearing new suits 
of English cloth, and, in New York and Boston, the mer- 
chants renewed their orders for English goods. 

Declaratory Act. — But George III. had no idea of re- 
leasing his right to tax the American colonies and in the 
same year that the Stamp Act was repealed, Parliament 
passed the Declaratory Act, which stated that " the Colonies 
and Plantations in America have been, are, and of right 
ought to be subordinate unto, and dependent upon the 
imperial crown and Parliament of Great Britain." At 



158 AMERICAN HISTORY 

the same time the expenses of colonial government still 
perplexed Parliament, and a new tax was levied on tea, glass, 
painters' colors, paper, wine, oil, and dried fruit. It was 
expected that at least about $200,000 would come in through 
this revenue, and that this money would pay the salaries 
of the king's governors and judges and thus make them 
independent of the colonial assemblies. 

The colonies promptly resisted the new taxation by re- 
fusing to use these imports. Committees of Correspond- 
ence were at work, and individuals and companies agreed 
not to use these articles. State assemblies passed resolu- 
tions " to discountenance the use in this province." The 
seaport and factory towns sent representatives to the 
government and many petitions were sent to the House of 
Commons begging the repeal of these acts. The English 
ministry, finally, removed all of the tariffs except a three- 
penny tax on tea. 

The Colonists then renewed their trade with England, 
but refused to buy tea. At this time the entire tea trade 
was in the hands of a big English company, known as the 
East India Company ; and it was customary for this firm 
to send their tea first to England, where a revenue tax was 
collected, and then to ship it to America, where the tax and 
extra freight charges made the price of tea higher than it 
would have been if it were brought directly to the Ameri- 
cans. For years the Americans had been buying tea from 
the Dutch or other ships engaged in this traffic, but the 
Navigation Laws prevented foreign ships from coming 
into American harbors, and the result was, that, with the 
additional threepenny per pound tax upon the tea, the 
Americans felt that the new tax was excessive and arbi- 
trary and that they resented this privilege of Parliament 
to levy unusual taxes, both arbitrary and objectionable. 

The East India Company was a very rich concern and in 
order to protect their trade and at the same time sustain 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 159 

the policy of Parliament in regard to taxing the imports 
into the colonies, the directors planned to ship tea to the 
Americans at a price cheaper than the Americans could 
purchase it from foreign ships ; thus, even with the tax 
continued, the price would still be very low. But the 
Americans refused these conditions, and determined not 
to let the cargoes of tea land. When the ships of the East 
India Company were in the harbor of Boston, a number of 
citizens disguised themselves as Mohawk Indians and went 
on board of the ships at night and threw the tea overboard. 
In South Carolina the tea was seized and later sold to buy 
ammunition for the American Army, and in New York and 
Philadelphia it was not allowed to be unloaded. 

North Carolina Revolts, 1771. — The tyrannical enforce- 
ment of unjust taxation was bitterly opposed by the people 
of North Carolina. Governor Tryon used his power to 
collect exorbitant taxes that were levied by a Tory legis- 
lature, and he approved of unjust fees that were charged 
by certain attorneys for services in law suits. When the 
people made protests, no redress was granted. Investiga- 
tion proved that the governor was profiting by these un- 
scrupulous acts, and the people were roused to indignation. 

Some of the citizens of North Carolina organized a move- 
ment to remedy these abuses. These men called themselves 
" Regulators." They presented petitions and appeals to 
the governor asking for reforms. The governor was indig- 
nant, and, gathering a force of one thousand soldiers, 
marched against the Regulators in order to overawe the 
association. Although many of the Regulators were 
unarmed, nevertheless they gathered to meet the militia 
and defend their protests. A skirmish took place on the 
Alamance River, May 16, 1771, in which twenty of the 
Regulators were killed. Tryon lost but nine men and 
returned elated with his victory. Seven Regulators were 
hanged by the governor. The effect caused the people 



i6o 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



of North Carolina to organize for the general revolution, 
which was inevitable. 

Gaspee Incident. — In order to enforce the Navigation 
Acts, the British government stationed light sailing ves- 
sels off the seacoast to watch for any smuggling that might 
be carried on. One of these, the Gaspee, had been particu- 
larly active. One evening as it lay off the coast of Marble- 
head, some men, knowing that its crew were ashore, went 
over and burned the vessel. 

Transportation Act. — The British government made 
every effort to secure the guilty ones, but they could not 
be located, and for this act the government passed what 
was known as the Transportation Act. This 
act provided that all persons, committing 
offenses against the government, were to be 
taken to England for trial instead of having 
trial by jury in the local courts. This act 
was so abhorred by the colonists that it was 
classed as one of the five Intolerable Acts. 

Another of these acts was one closing the 
port of Boston because of the Boston Tea 
Party, as the act of destroying the tea was 
sometimes called. 

Quartering of Soldiers. — The quartering 
of soldiers in private homes was another act 
that gave grave trouble. When the English 
government felt the constant resistance of 
the colonists to the unjust and despised 
laws, a number of troops was sent to the 
colonies to prevent any open resistance to 
British authority. Both William Pitt and Edmund Burke 
realized that the government was wrong in many of 
these laws and urged measures of conciliation. But 
George III. and his cabinet forgot the old-time charter 
promise that the English colonists in America " should 




British 
Soldier. 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 161 

have all rights, privileges, immunities, and franchises 
. . . (Charter 1606) and that these rights should descend 
unto the succeeding generations." The Americans wished 
to be treated as if they were citizens of English towns and 
not as dependent subjects. They were most anxious to be 
considered as regular English subjects, and had at this 
time no definite idea of separation. An old English law 
had prevented the quartering of soldiers in private homes 
and this act was looked upon as equally unjust. 

Boston Massacre. — In many places the citizens would 
not receive the soldiers and the government housed them 
in the public buildings. The colonists felt outraged when- 
ever they saw the " Redcoats,'' as the soldiers were called. 
In Massachusetts the feeling was greatly increased by an 
incident known as the Boston Massacre (1770). It hap- 
pened that some workmen had words with a group of sol- 
diers, and the soldiers fired into the midst and killed several 
citizens. The people were so indignant that they demanded 
an immediate removal of the troops. In New York some 
troops tore down a pole known as the Liberty Pole, and 
this caused a clash between the soldiers and the people 
(1770). The Committees on Correspondence still kept 
up an active information campaign regarding grievances, 
and all America seemed aroused. 

The Regulation Act. — Because Massachusetts was 
regarded as the hotbed of revolutionary feeling, inasmuch 
as the citizens refused to accept their royal governor, this 
colony was placed under military law. What was known 
as the Regulating Act was passed, whereby all members of 
the upper house of the colonial assembly, all judges, sheriffs, 
and others, were not only to be appointed by the crown, but 
could only be removed by the governor's authority. This 
caused great fear in all of the colonies as it literally took 
away their charter privileges and placed the whole author- 
ity and power in the hands of the king's friends and em- 



l62 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



ployees. Virginia wrote that " an attack on Massachusetts 
is an attack upon Virginia." This was really the senti- 
ment of all of the colonists. 

The Quebec Act. — This was another Parliamentary 
measure that caused much discontent. By this act the 
authority over the Ohio Valley was placed in the hands of 
the government of Quebec, instead of Virginia and Pennsyl- 
vania. The latter colonies really had the nearest and most 
natural jurisdiction over this district. Moreover the act 
gave the British government an opportunity to place troops 

for easy disposal on the 
frontier line just back of 
the colonies. It also ex- 
tended the Canadian fur 
trade interest and limited 
the movement of western 
expansion. 

Another phase of this 
act gave to the discon- 
tented French Catholics 
the privilege of having the Roman Catholic faith restored 
as the state religion, and, on the other hand, when the 
Protestant Episcopalians requested the crown to grant 
them a resident bishop, the government refused, and made 
them continue under the diocese of London. 

All these and other minor issues strained the relation 
of the colonies toward the mother country so much that 
the colonists determined to hold a general meeting and 
make a united effort to have their cause recognized. 

Throughout Europe, at this time, there was much unrest 
because of the harsh laws of absolute monarchies, and 
many persons were greatly interested in the American 
cause. This was especially so in Great Britain and France, 
where excessive taxation had become burdensome, and 
where the unwise policy of the king and his ministers had 




, . «Philadelphia _, ,. 

.3^ yJ.EW JERSEY QUEBEC 

(1774) 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 163 

led the people into forming new political parties with the 
object of overthrowing the existing ministry and its plans. 
Both interest and sympathy were shown in the American 
movement. 

First Continental Congress. — In consequence of the 
work of the Committees on Correspondence a meeting of 
delegates from most of the colonies was held in Philadelphia 
in September, 1774. It was a great meeting. Men from 
all religious denominations and from many walks in life 
were present ; men who were to become famous in the 
later history of the country; men who were determined 
to do what was right, and to seek honorably and peaceably 
to restore the rights of the American people. 

All grievances were discussed and then it was agreed to 
draft these into an address to be sent to the people of the 
colonies and to the English public, and a petition was to be 
sent to the king and Parliament. The delegates also 
formed an American Association for non-importation until 
the grievances should be remedied and, further, determined 
upon keeping in close touch with Boston, where the British 
were in control and where the national colonial policy was 
being pushed. It was also agreed that another meeting of 
the Congress was to be held in May of the next year. 

The English Attitude toward this Congress. — The 
king and his cabinet were indifferent toward the petition 
and looked upon the Congress as a movement for sedition. 

Pitt most earnestly urged conciliation and asked that 
the troops be removed from Boston. In his appeal he 
said: "When your lordships look at the papers; when 
you consider their decency, firmness and wisdom, you 
cannot but respect their cause and wish to make it your 
own. For myself, I must declare that for solidity of rea- 
soning, force of sagacity, and wisdom of conclusion — no 
nation or body of men can stand in preference to the general 
Congress at Philadelphia." 



1 64 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Edmund Burke also made a strong plea for conciliation, 
but it was all in vain. No efforts were made either to 
redress the grievances or to offer any compromises in favor 
of the Americans. 

Topical Outline 

The American Revolution. 
I. General Causes of Separation from Great Britain. 
i. Political Training of Colonists. 

2. Remoteness from England Promotes Independence. 

3. National Debt Gives Trouble in Colonies. 
II. Definite Causes of War. 

1. Revision of Taxes. 

2. Navigation Acts, Writs of Assistance. 

3. Stamp Act. 

4. Declaratory Act. 

5. North Carolina Revolts. 

6. Gaspee Incident. 

7. Transportation Act. 

8. Quartering of Soldiers ; Boston Massacre. 

9. Regulating Act. 
10. Quebec Act. 

III. Colonial Protests. 

1. First Continental Congress, September, 1774. 

2. English Attitude toward this Congress. 

3. Committees on Correspondence. 



Review Questions 

1. How did the political training of the colonists become a cause 
for separation from Great Britain? 

2. Explain how the remoteness of the colonies from the mother 
country developed independence. 

3. What was the financial condition in England at the close of 
the French and Indian War ? 

4. How did England attempt to revise her taxes? 

5. What were the Navigation Laws and Writs of Assistance? 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 165 

6. Tell something of the Stamp Act, noting first, its purpose, 
second, the opposition of the colonists to the act. 

7. Who aided in securing a repeal of the Stamp Act? 

8. What was the Declaratory Act? Describe the resistance of 
the colonies to this act. 

9. Give an account of the trouble between the colonists and the 
governor of North Carolina. 

10. What circumstances led to the Boston Massacre ? 

1 1 . What was meant by the Quebec Act ? 

12. What was the work of the first Continental Congress? 

13. How did England regard this Congress? 

References 

Fiske : The American Revolution. 

Van Tyne : The American Revolution. 

Frothingham : The Rise of the Republic of the United States. 

Roosevelt : The Winning of the West. 

Channing : History of the United States, Vol. III. 



CHAPTER X 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 



Battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775. — While the colo- 
nists were awaiting their reply from England, General Gage 

was still in command at 
Boston trying to enforce 
military rule. He heard 
that some of the Ameri- 
cans were gathering 
army stores at Concord, 
a near-by town, and he 
therefore sent some 
troops to destroy these 
stores. As they were to 
pass through Lexington, 
he sent a secret detach- 
ment to capture John 
Hancock and Samuel 
Adams, whom he termed 
" arch-rebels." 
The Americans were 
watching every movement. That night they hung lighted 
lanterns in the tower of Old North Church and signaled 
to Paul Revere and William Dawes that the British were 
on their way. The horsemen started on their midnight 
ride and away over the country road they went, calling 
aloud that the British were coming. The Minute Men 
were ready and the alarm was sounded in every village 
by the clang of bells and the signal fires on the hill-tops. 

166 




John Hancock. 




The Colonies at the Outbreak of the Revolution 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 



167 



By morning, when the British soldiers reached Lexington, 
they were met by a small force of Americans and were 
ordered by the British com- 
mander Pitcairn to disperse. 
When they refused to do so, 
Pitcairn ordered a volley to 
be fired, which killed eight 
Americans. The British hur- 
ried on to Concord and de- 
stroyed the stores, but on 
their return to Boston they 
were met by the Americans 
at every turn and fired upon 
from behind fences and 
barns. The British loss was 
nearly three times that of 
the Americans. This first 
battle of the Revolution 
proved to the British that 
the Americans were able to 
meet them on military terms. 

Within the next week 
nearly sixteen thousand 
minute men arrived from all 
over New England, and the 
whole section showed itself to be prepared for the coming 
war. 

The battle of Lexington really opened the American 
Revolution, but war was not formally declared until the 
next month, when the Continental Congress opened its 
second session in Philadelphia. 

Ticonderoga. — On this day Ethan Allen and some 
" Green Mountain boys " from Vermont crossed over 
toward Lake Champlain and captured the British Fort 
Ticonderoga, guarding the road to Canada (1775). 




Old North Church. 



i68 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Bunker Hill, June 16, 1775. — In Massachusetts the 
patriots made preparations for the battle of Bunker Hill. 
The Continental Congress, having failed to receive any 
word from the British government, formally declared war 
and placed General George Washington commander in 
chief of the army. 

Washington went on to Cambridge just outside of 
Boston and there took charge of the American forces on 




Battle of Lexington. 



July 3, 1775. In the meantime on June 16 of that year, 
Colonel Prescott, with one thousand men, took up a posi- 
tion on Breed's Hill, near Boston, and in the night threw 
up fortifications that placed his army in a fairly safe 
position. The next morning Generals Putnam and Stark 
arrived with three hundred men and got in readiness for 
the attack. They were determined to drive the British 
out of Boston and thus restore Massachusetts to its state 
of freedom. The British commanders, Howe and Clinton, 
with three thousand picked soldiers came out to meet the 
Americans and to dislodge them from their position. 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 



169 



It was three o'clock when the battle began. General 
Warren, who was assisting Prescott, had warned his men not 
to shoot until they could " see the whites of the enemy's 
eyes." The result was a series of deliberate volleys that 
brought havoc to the British ranks and forced them to 
retire down the hill, but. bravely they started back. Again 
the Americans waited until they came within thirty yards 
and fired. Again the British regulars were forced down 




Battle of Bunker Hill. 

the hill. Yet a third time did the English forces steadily 
march forward up the heights. This time the powder 
of the Americans gave out and they were obliged to yield 
their position. The British lost more than a thousand men 
and the Americans about four hundred ; among the latter 
was General Warren, who had so bravely aided in the 
attack. 



THE AGGRESSIVE PLAN OF THE BRITISH 

Effect on the British of the Early Battles. — When the 
news of the battles of Lexington and Bunker Hill reached 



170 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



the British government, a regular plan was formed to sub- 
due the uprising in the colonies. Many troops were sent 
over to Halifax, Nova Scotia, which was the military base 
of the English in America. From this place, troops could 
be sent without much difficulty to the principal American 
coast towns. 

Plans. — The regular campaign that was planned seemed 
to be as follows : 

First, to cut off New England from the rest of the colonies, as this 
district was deemed the "Hotbed of the Revolution." 

Second, to blockade the American ports and thus cut off supplies 
from foreign countries. 

Third, to capture Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Con- 
gress, and break up the political organization of the colonies. 

Fourth, to organize the Tory forces of the South, and overrun this 
section of the country. 

Operation of the First British Plan. — We shall now 
consider the first of these plans and note the results. Gen- 
eral Gage had made Boston the military base of New 
England. From this point he planned to gain control of 
the entire district. The Americans realized this, and, as 
we have seen from the battles of Lexington and Bunker 

Hill, were determined to hold 
their own against the British 
invasion. 

Preparation for the Siege of 
Boston. — Washington accord- 
ingly designed to rid the whole 
section of the British forces, 
and he arranged for a siege of 
Boston. He had a very limited 
supply of siege guns and a scarcity of powder, but he 
patiently set to work to plan his attack. His cannon were 
brought over the snow on sleds from Ticonderoga and 
arranged in an aggressive line around Boston. Washing- 




REVOLUTION BEGINS 



171 



ton worked on his plans and drilled his men from July 3, 
1775, until the following March. It seemed to many that 
it was a long time to prepare, but the commander knew that 
a number of his men had never been in a regular battle 
and that his supplies were limited, while the British regu- 
lars were well drilled and thoroughly equipped. 

The Attack. — On the evening of March 4, 1776, Wash- 
ington began his attack on the English lines. While the 
British army was occupied with this movement, he sent two 
thousand Americans to fortify Dorchester Heights, an ele- 
vation close to Boston. These troops worked all night 
building breastworks and getting the cannon in position. 

General Howe had succeeded General Gage in com- 
mand of the British forces. When morning came, he 
was suddenly aware that the cannonading which the 
Americans had been carrying on all night was for the 
purpose of attracting the British away from the real siege. 
Howe was now obliged to attack the Heights after the same 
manner as Bunker Hill had been scaled. Realizing that 
the ships in the harbor were as much at stake as the army 
on land, Howe decided to leave Boston rather than make 
an attack. He declared that if the Americans fired upon 
his troops he would burn the city, so, in order to save 
the town, Washington allowed the English to sail away 
without making an attack upon them. Thus Massachu- 
setts was rid of the military rule of the British. The first 
plan of the English was a failure. 

There were rumors that the British were planning to 
make New York their next military base, from this site 
control the Hudson, and thus cut off New England from 
the other colonies. Washington anticipated their plans by 
arranging eighteen thousand men in its defense. He 
placed nine thousand troops on Long Island, some in New 
York City ; and north of the city on the banks of the Hud- 
son River he equipped two forts. 



172 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Americans Attack Canada, 1775. — While Washington 
was planning the campaign near Boston, a daring attack 
was made upon Canada. It was led by General Richard 
Montgomery, who had served with Wolfe at Quebec. 

Montgomery took 1500 
men to Canada by way 
of Lake Champlain and 
made a successful attack 
upon Montreal, while 
Benedict Arnold with 
another force marched 
through the difficult 
woods of Maine in the 
midwinter season. Even 
though he lost more than 
a third of his men, and 
suffered terrible hard- 
ships from the severe 
journey, yet he appeared 
before the great fortress 
of Quebec and waited 
for Montgomery. When 
the latter arrived, an 
assault was made in a 
blinding snowstorm on 
December 31, 1775, but 
without avail. Mont- 
gomery was killed and Arnold was severely wounded. 
The invasion was practically a failure, although there was 
scarcely an event in the whole war marked by greater 
hardships and characterized by greater bravery than this 
heroic undertaking. 

Lord Dunmore's War, 1776. — Just before the American 
Revolution, the settlers in the frontier district of Virginia 
suffered from Indian outrages. Andrew Lewis, an early 



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The Expedition to Canada and 
Washington's Line of March to 
New York. 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 



173 



pioneer of the Shenandoah Valley and an experienced In- 
dian lighter, was sent to suppress the Indian outbreaks. 
Lord Dunmore, who was governor of Virginia at this time, 
instructed Lewis as to the location of the Indians and prom- 
ised to meet him with a large force of militia. Lewis, 
accompanied by a few men, bravely went forward, but Dun- 
more failed to send him aid ; 
and the Virginians found them- 
selves facing a force of two 
thousand Indians under the 
leadership of an Indian chief 
called Cornstalk. The en- 
gagement took place at Point 
Pleasant near the junction of 
the Ohio and Kanawha riv- 
ers. Desperate fighting oc- 
curred. Finally Lewis and 
his men were able to hold 
their ground. 

This was the last serious 
Indian outbreak in Virginia, 
but it had cost the loss of 
many of Lewis's forces. It 
was estimated that one man 
out of every rive was killed. 
Later it was reported that Lord Dunmore was responsible 
for the Indian troubles, as he was carrying on trade with the 
Indians and wished to use them to weaken the strength of 
the patriot forces in Virginia. The people were indignant 
at the unscrupulous acts of the governor. When war was 
declared between the colonies and Great Britain, Andrew 
Lewis was appointed brigadier general of the Virginia 
forces in 1776. It was not long after this that he forced 
Lord Dunmore to leave the country. 

Battle of Moore's Creek. — Early in the year 1776 




Andrew Lewis. 



174 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Governor Tryon of North Carolina began collecting the 
Tory forces in the state. There were a number of Scotch 
Highlanders in North Carolina who had taken no part in 
the opposition to the oppressive measures of the crown, 
but who had remained loyal to the king. Fifteen hundred 
of these recruits planned to march on to Wilmington to 
join the British army. They were intercepted at Moore's 
Creek by some patriot forces under Colonels Caswell and 
Lillington, and a battle took place in which the Tory forces 
were defeated. These incidents show the activity of the 
Americans and their determination to prevent British 
organization in America. 

CIVIL EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION 

Plans for Independence. — Although George III. had 
paid no attention to the first petition sent by the Conti- 
nental Congress, and the colonies had been forced into 
war, still there was a strong feeling among the Americans 
to have peace and to have the differences between them- 
selves and the British government settled amicably. To 
this end, a Tory, by the name of Richard Penn, was sent 
by Congress to England with another petition to the king. 
This time George III. gave a reply that declared that he 
refused to receive the petition, that he considered the 
Americans as rebels, and that he intended to hire a num- 
ber of foreign troops to subdue them. This reply made 
plain to the Americans that there was no hope for recon- 
ciliation, and that every effort should be made to take 
the defensive. 

Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence. — There 
was now created a strong feeling in favor of separation 
from the mother country. As early as May, 1775, the 
people of Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, drew up 
resolutions declaring that the Americans owed no alle- 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 1 75 

giance to the king, and that the local assemblies and the Con- 
tinental Congress had the right to rule them. These reso- 
lutions were read in many of the colonies and the spirit of 
independence grew. 

About this time there appeared a pamphlet entitled 
Common Sense, written by Thomas Paine, and containing 
strong arguments for the rights of man and freedom. 
Paine's essay, widely read, inspired a number of people 




Signing Declaration of Independence. 

to take up the cause. Some of the local assemblies in- 
structed their delegates to the Continental Congress to vote 
for separation from England. 

On May 14, 1776, the colonial assembly of Virginia called 
a convention and definitely told their representatives to 
the Continental Congress to propose that the Congress 
" declare the United Colonies free and independent states." 

Declaration of Independence. — In June, 1776, Richard 
Henry Lee, of Virginia, introduced in Congress a resolution 
that was to become the keynote of the meeting; namely, 
" that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, 



176 AMERICAN HISTORY 

free and independent states." John Adams, of Massa- 
chusetts, spoke in favor of the motion. Although there was 
not a unanimous vote in favor of the resolution, it was 
carried, and a committee was appointed to draft the formal 
declaration of independence. This committee was com- 
posed of Thomas Jefferson, chairman, and John Adams, 
Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Liv- 
ingston. Jefferson was the author of the Declaration, and 
this famous document stands as one of the most important 
state papers in our country. 

When the Continental Congress adopted this great 
resolution on July 4, 1776, it marked a day that was ever 
to be considered the greatest day in the history of our 
national life. The bell in the tower of the State House in 
Philadelphia rang out the joyful news to the waiting pub- 
lic. At once messages of the adoption of the Declara- 
tion were sent to all of the colonies, where the news was 
gladly received, and special celebrations were held. In 
the army, the Declaration was read to the soldiers, who 
received it with cheers amid the firing of salutes. 

Two things more were needful to make the resolutions 
an actual declaration of purpose : first, the ratification of 
all of the colonies ; and second, the success of these fighting 
for independence. More earnest efforts were made to win 
the day, and men now enlisted who had hesitated before, 
women gave all of their spare time to aiding the cause by 
making clothes and other supplies for the soldiers, and 
many foreigners who had dreamed of independence in 
their own countries now came to America and cordially 
offered their services to the Continental army. 

While the feeling for separation from Great Britain 
seemed universal in America, yet there were a number of 
persons who remained loyal to the crown. These spoke 
their protests against the Declaration openly, and joined 
the British army. In many instances, things grew so 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 



177 



SCALE OF MILES 



unpleasant for the Tories, as they were called, that they 
left the country and moved into Canada. Among these 
refugees were some of the wealthi- 
est and best educated people in 
America. It was estimated that 
no less than sixty thousand left 
this country during the Revolu- 
tion. 

Operation of the Second British 
Plan. — We have noted how Wash- 
ington antic- 
ipated the 
British plan 
by placing 
eighteen thou- 
sand troops 
around New 
York City, 
and it was 
none too 
soon ; for, by 
July of 1776, 
the British 
commander, 
Admiral 
Howe, arrived 
in New York 
Bay with a 
large fleet and 
an army of 
twenty-five 
thousand 

troops under command of his brother, General Howe. Howe 
landed on Staten Island and went into camp. While 
here he was friendly toward the Americans and evinced 




The New York Campaign. 



178 AMERICAN HISTORY 

a desire to close the war without further military engage- 
ments. This was just after the adoption of the Declara- 
tion of Independence, and the Americans had but one idea 
in treating for peace. As Howe had no authority to treat 
with them, plans for peace had to be dropped and hostilities 
resumed. About this time another reenforcement of troops 
arrived, raising the British army to thirty thousand. 

British Capture New York. — The battle of Long Island 
now took place, August 27, 1776, and the British were 




Washington Crossing the Delaware. 

successful. Washington, with the aid of some Marblehead 
fishermen, who were among his soldiers, rowed his men safely 
over to New York, where he defeated the British at Harlem 
Heights. Washington advanced up the Hudson and 
was rapidly followed by Howe, who succeeded in gaining an 
advantage over the Americans at White Plains. Howe 
then turned and attacked Fort Washington and captured 
Fort Lee. The Americans still held control of the Hudson 
above the city, but their defeats gave the impression that 
the British were successful in their plans. While New York 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 



179 



City was in their control, yet New England had not been 
cut off from the rest of the colonies. 

Howe now threatened Philadelphia. Washington, learn- 
ing that Cornwallis was taking a strong position on the 
Hudson, retreated across New Jersey and attracted the 
British from their original plan. 

American Victory at Trenton. — The British followed, 
and Washington, greatly outnumbered, was obliged to 
fall back from place to place without giving 
battle. He had expected General Charles 
Lee to come on with reinforcements, but 
Lee blundered in his commands and failed 
to reach Washington in time to render aid. 
The Americans were now becoming discour- 
aged and saw only defeat, when Washington 
suddenly fell upon Trenton on Christmas 
night, 1776, surprised the carousing Hes- 
sians, who were guarding the town, and 
captured the entire army and many supplies. 
It was one of Washington's famous victories, 
and came at a time when it was greatly 
needed. 

On January 2, 1777, Washington found 
that Cornwallis had brought his army up A Hessi e an Sol " 
close to the American camp and planned 
to capture the whole force. On the morning of the third, 
Cornwallis was very much surprised to find that the 
Americans had slipped away, and at daylight had met 
two thousand British troops at Princeton and defeated 
them. Because of the extreme cold, the Americans were 
nearly exhausted. Washington would have liked to follow 
up the campaign by capturing some British supplies that 
were stored at New Brunswick, but he feared the risk, and 
retired to Morristown, where his army went into winter 
quarters. Although the British held New York City, they 




i8o 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



had failed to cut off New England from the rest of the col- 
onies, and they had lost more men and supplies than the 
Americans. 

Financial Distress. — The Continental Congress had 
very little money for the support of the war, and so they 
decided to seek foreign aid. Silas Deane was sent to 
France, where he succeeded in securing a secret loan of 

upward of one million 
francs. At this time 
many of the French 
people were in sym- 
pathy with the Ameri- 
cans, but the French 
government was not 
prepared to give open 
aid to the colonies. 
Later loans were made 
in Spain and Holland, 
but these were not 
large, and the scarcity 
of supplies caused the 
soldiers to suffer many 
hardships. 

Washington made a 
special appeal to his 
friend, Robert Morris, 
a wealthy banker of 
Philadelphia. On New 
Year's Day Morris left his home early in the morning 
and personally called on a number of wealthy persons in 
that city and urged their aid for the American cause. It 
was promptly given. Some of these patriotic people, 
including Morris, borrowed money on their own homes in 
order that the great suffering and distress of the American 
soldiers might be relieved. 




Robert Morris. 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 181 

The Crisis. — Among the soldiers who had followed the re- 
treat of Washington from New York to Trenton, there was an 
Englishman who had come from England a few months be- 
fore the outbreak of the Revolution, and who joined the 
American ranks. He was Thomas Paine, the author of the 
pamphlet, Common Sense, that had had so great an influence 
upon the preparation of the Declaration of Independence. 
All through the dreary nights by the lonely camp fires, 
Paine worked on another brilliant paper. It was finished 
on December 31, 1776, and published under the title of 
The Crisis. It was an enthusiastic call to the American 
soldiers to continue the good work. He wrote, " The 
harder the conflict, the more glorious the triumph, — ■ 
Heaven knows how to put a proper price upon its goods ; 
and it would be strange indeed if so celestial an article as 
Freedom should not be highly rated." Many other enthu- 
siastic phrases occurred. This pamphlet proved to be a 
wonderful inspiration. Washington had passages of it 
read to his soldiers while they were in camp, and many 
copies were bought and read. It had a profound effect 
in keeping up the spirits of the men and holding the army 
together. 

Washington's Influence. — But the greatest force in the 
American army was Washington, the commander in chief. 
He endured all the hardships with his men, he cheered 
their disheartened spirits, he guided them with caution and 
firmness, and he held their confidence in the most trying 
times. On two or three occasions, certain selfish individuals 
tried to plot against the leader, but these plots were exposed 
and their promoters reaped the harvest of disgrace. 

Operation of the Third British Plan. — In the spring of 
1777, the British again opened plans for cutting off the 
colonies of the North. General Burgoyne, aided by Colonel 
St. Leger, planned to bring a large force from Canada and 
invade the Hudson Valley, while Howe in New York City 



182 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



was to send a force into this region, so that together they 
might effect a complete surrender of the district. 

It was about June i, 1777, when Burgoyne set out with 
an army of eight thousand men, including British regulars, 
German troops, about six hundred and fifty Canadians and 
their Indian allies. They succeeded in taking Ticonderoga 
and spent some time in minor engagements along the way. 




Battlefields 



Among the most notable of these was the fight at Ben- 
nington, where a force of Burgoyne's army was defeated 
by General Stark. 

To keep the British from advancing down the Hudson, 
the Americans had taken a position at Bemis Heights near 
Saratoga. Here a preliminary encounter was made by 
Gates, who was ably supported by Benedict Arnold. 
Another engagement was made at Saratoga, and at this 
place British forces were completely defeated on October 7, 
1777. 

On October 17, 1777, Burgoyne made his surrender. 
This was the last time an attempt was made to separate 
the colonies. The battle of Saratoga became known as 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 183 

the decisive battle of the war and marked the turning 
point in American affairs. 

British Occupy Philadelphia. — Fearing an attack upon 
Philadelphia, the Continental Congress removed to Balti- 
more, and, later, to York, Pennsylvania. Upon this re- 
moval many Americans also abandoned the city, and it 
was with great difficulty that Robert Morris could secure 
any protection for the city, as Washington had need of 
his army in other places. After the British defeat at 






mm 



Burgoyne's Army on the Road from Lake Champlain to Fort 

Edward. 

Princeton, however, Washington arranged to send some 
troops in the neighborhood of the Delaware River and 
Bay, lest the British might send a fleet by this route and 
attempt to take the city. 

Howe planned a complete change of manceuvers, and 
instead of using the Delaware route, he took his vessels to 
the head of Chesapeake Bay, where he landed his troops 
at Elkton, Maryland. From here he proceeded to march 
on toward Philadelphia. Washington hurried to meet 
him. An engagement took place at Brandywine Creek, 



184 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



where the Americans lost the day. The British now 
marched on and took the city about the same time that 
Gates and Arnold were meeting Burgoyne in New York. 
The news of the loss of Philadelphia had a bad effect upon 

the European na- 
tions, who were 
considering ac- 
knowledging the 
United Colonies 
as a nation. It 
caused a delay in 
foreign negotia- 
tions. 

Valley Forge. 
— Upon his fail- 
ure to dislodge 
the British at 
Philadelphia, 
Washington with- 
drew to Valley 
Forge and es- 
tablished winter 
quarters on De- 
cember 19, 1777. 
This period was 
the darkest in the 
American Revo- 
lution. The soldiers were poorly clad and insufficiently 
fed, the winter was severe, and the suffering of the army 
was intense. Washington felt that this was the most crit- 
ical period of the war. Every effort was made to relieve 
the suffering of the men and to stimulate their faith in 
the cause. 

Among the most helpful officers in Washington's corps 
was Baron Steuben, a Prussian drill master who had vol- 




REVOLUTION BEGINS 



185 



unteered to serve in the American army. Steuben under- 
took to drill the men, and day after day vigorously en- 
gaged their interest in military tactics and encouraged 
them to keep up their enthusiasm for liberty. 

With the coming of spring brighter days began to dawn. 
By this time the news of the victory of Saratoga was hav- 
ing the effect of securing the confidence of the European 




Washington at Valley Forge. 



nations in the American cause. It was at this time that 
foreign assistance was assured. 

French Aid. — Franklin again presented the cause of 
the Americans to the French government, and the latter 
agreed to form an alliance with the American states. This 
treaty shifted the affairs of the war. As soon as the 
French government made the alliance with the Americans, 
a fleet of war vessels under the command of Count de 
Rochambeau and Count de Grasse was sent to aid the 
Americans. Land forces were also dispatched to the 



i86 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



colonies. And a loan was secured that helped to tide over 
the expenses of the war. 

Spain and Holland were also drawn into the struggle ; 
Spain and Holland lent money ; and England had to face a 
world-wide conflict. 

Arnold's Treason. — Although the victory at Saratoga 
was largely due to the military genius of Arnold, Congress 

failed to recognize the 
merits of this able com- 
mander and granted the 
honors to Gates. Ar- 
nold felt disappointed at 
this treatment and bit- 
terly resented the slight. 
His services during the 
Revolution had been of 
inestimable value to the 
Americans, and Wash- 
ington recognized him 
as one of his most heroic 
and self-sacrificing gen- 
erals and regarded him 
with great esteem. Dur- 
ing the next two years Arnold's bitterness toward Con- 
gress was increased by criticisms by that body of his 
careless conduct. He was honorably acquitted of the 
charges, but he never forgave his foes. 

He had lately married a Tory lady and through this 
influence was brought in contact with certain British 
officers. He began to carry on secret communications 
with Clinton, and at last boldly planned a most unfortunate 
scheme. He asked Washington to appoint him as com- 
mander of West Point. This was one of the most strategic 
positions on the Hudson River. In a sense, it was the key 
to open the way for separating New England from the rest 




Baron Steuben. 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 



I8 7 



of the colonies. The commission was granted to Arnold ; 
and, shortly afterwards, he negotiated with the British to 
deliver the fortress into their hands for a large sum of 
money. Major Andre was selected to act as the messenger 
between the two forces. He was arrested, and the papers 
of transfer were found in his possession. 

^ Andre was hanged as a spy. Arnold escaped and made 
his way to the British ranks, where he was given a posi- 
tion. This act was one 
of the darkest blots upon 
American history. Wash- 
ington could scarcely be- 
lieve the report. He 
was deeply grieved, as 
he had always looked 
upon Arnold as a brave, 
skillful soldier, and had 
considered him at all 
times loyal to the Amer- 
ican cause. 

Operation of the 
Fourth British Plan. — 
As we have mentioned, 
one of the British plans 
was to organize the 
Tory forces of the South 
and to use these as an 
advance guard toward 
the north. In the early 
part of the war, Clinton 
made an attack upon 
Charleston, which was 
guarded by Fort Sullivan. This fort, gallantly commanded 
by Colonel Moultrie and Sergeant Jasper, withstood the 
fire from the fleet ; and Clinton was obliged to withdraw. 




Statue of Sergeant Jasper, 
ton. 



Charles- 



1 88 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Later an attack was made upon Savannah. This place 
was defended by Colonel Robert Howe with but five hun- 
dred troops. Since the Americans were unable to with- 
stand the assault, the city surrendered. The British now 
used this as a military base. 

From this city they sent recruiting armies into the in- 
terior to gather together the Tory forces. These recruit- 
ing companies were met 
by loyal Americans, 
known as the partisan 
leaders. In many in- 
stances whole com- 
panies were harassed 
and routed, and their 
supplies captured. 
Among the most noted 
of these partisans were 
Marion, Sumter, Lee, 
Pickens, Clarke, and 
Sevier. 

Cornwallis, the most 
eminent of the British 
generals in America, 
was sent into the South 
to take charge. He 
planned another at- 
tempt to capture Charleston, and, advancing inland, he 
approached the city and finally succeeded in taking it. 
Washington, fearing that the South would be overrun, 
sent Lincoln with a regular force to organize a defense of 
the Carolinas. Lincoln failed, and Gates was sent to take 
charge. He met the British forces at Camden, where he 
suffered a bitter defeat. Gates was succeeded by Na- 
thanael Greene, the greatest American general, next to 
Washington. 




Francis Marion. 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 



189 



Battle of King's Mountain. — About the time that 
Greene took command in the South, the partisan leaders 
gathered their forces and started out to intercept Major 
Ferguson who had been sent by Cornwallis to the border 
of the Carolinas to organize the Tories of that district. 
Ferguson had a force 
of twelve hundred Brit- 
ish troops. He took a 
position on the top of 
King's Mountain and 
defied the Americans. 
On three sides of the 
mountain came the 
charge of a thousand 
picked riflemen of the 
partisan forces. The 
British charged bravely 
forward, but could not 
withstand the steady, 
accurate aim of the 
backwoodsmen. The 
Americans had but 
twenty-eight killed ; the 
British slain numbered 
many more, including 
their commander. The 

remainder surrendered to the Americans. This battle 
seemed to turn the tide of affairs in the South, and is fre- 
quently spoken of as the decisive battle of the South. 

Battle of Cowpens and Greene's Retreat. — In tak- 
ing command in the South, Greene determined to meet 
Cornwallis and defeat his plans. " Light Horse Harry 
Lee," of Virginia, with his famous cavalry, was sent to the 
support of Greene. Daniel Morgan with other troops was 
also on hand. Morgan took a position at Cowpens, South 




Nathanael Greene. 



190 



AMERICAN HISTORY 




"Light Horse Harry" Lee. 



Carolina, and was met 
by Cornwallis's most 
able commander, Colo- 
nel Tarleton. Here an 
engagement took place, 
Tarleton was complete- 
ly routed, and his re- 
maining force was taken 
captive. 

Cornwallis, greatly 
outdone by this fail- 
ure, boldly determined 
to follow up the Ameri- 
can forces with a large 
army and capture Gen- 
eral Greene. Morgan 
hurriedly withdrew from his position ; and Greene, real- 
izing that he did not have an army sufficiently strong 
to meet Cornwallis, determined to retreat into the 
country and draw the British away from their sea- 
coast base of sup- 
plies. Cornwallis fol- 
lowed in hot pursuit 
and made every ef- 
fort to overtake the 
Americans. It was 
said that he destroyed 
all of his heavy bag- 
gage and tried to make 
forced marches. Heavy 
rains caused the moun- 
tain streams to increase 
in volume and made 
travel very difficult, 
but still the pursuit con- 




Daniel Morgan. 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 



191 



tinued. Greene led the way across the Carolinas and into 
Virginia. 

When he came to this point, he wheeled his army about, 
crossed again into North Carolina, and seized an opportu- 
nity to give battle at Guilford Court House. Cornwallis 
held the field, but lost more than a third of his men. He 
declared that with another victory like this he should be 
undone. Cornwallis then returned to the seaboard and 
Greene, following, retook the Carolinas as he went. 

The partisan leaders continued their able work and 
captured many of the positions held by the British. In 
the early fall of 1781 

Greene met the enemy ^^^ 

at Eutaw Springs and 
had an uncertain advan- 
tage. The next day the 
British retreated to 
Charleston. This city 
and Savannah were the 
only positions that they 
held in the South. 

Last Land Campaign. 
— Cornwallis now made 
his way toward Virginia, 
where Lafayette, the 
young French com- 
mander, had charge of 
defenses near Yorktown 
Peninsula. Washington 
was in the neighborhood of New York, planning to 
make an attack upon that city, when he learned that 
Cornwallis had reached Virginia and was awaiting the 
arrival of Clinton's fleet from New York. Washington 
continued to give the impression that he was threatening 
New York, when suddenly he slipped away toward the 




Lafayette. 



IQ 2 AMERICAN HISTORY 

South, passing through Philadelphia on his way. The 
British had abandoned this city the year before, and the 
Continental Congress had resumed its meetings here. 
Great joy spread through the town as Washington hurried 
on his march. The citizens decorated their houses, and 
heartily cheered the army all the way. 

While Washington was moving southward, the French 
fleet, arriving in Chesapeake Bay, waited at the head of 
the bay to carry the army down to York town. Before 
Cornwallis could secure aid, either by land or sea, the French 
fleet and the American forces began a siege of the place. 
For a month the army and the fleet held this position. 
After carrying the outer earthworks by assault, the 
Americans were rewarded by the surrender of the entire 
British force. 

Cornwallis refused to appear in person and make the sur- 
render, so Washington delegated a subordinate ofhcer to 
receive the final surrender, October 19, 1781. The siege 
of Yorktown virtually marks the close of the American 
Revolution. Although the British did succeed, in part, 
in holding the seaport towns, they failed to keep the 
Americans from securing aid from foreign countries, and 
they failed entirely in their general plans for conquering the 
colonists. 

The Treaty of Paris. — The treaty of peace was signed 
in Paris, in 1783. By this treaty the Americans were 
recognized as a free and independent people, and their 
country took its place among the other powers of the 
world. 

The Articles of Confederation. — When the second 
Continental Congress met, Benjamin Franklin proposed 
that some form of government should be adopted. To 
this end he submitted a draft of the Articles of Confedera- 
tion as early as June, 1775, but no action was taken then. 
A year later, Congress appointed a committee of one from 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 193 

each colony " to prepare and draft the form of a confedera- 
tion." John Dickinson, of Delaware, was made chairman 
of the committee. A month later a draft of the form 
of government was presented. Many amendments were 
suggested, and changes were made in the original draft, 
but finally the Articles of Confederation were adopted by 
Congress, November 15, 1777. 

These provided for a firm league of friendship between 
the several states : one house was to be composed of not 
less than two nor more than seven delegates from each 
state ; and each state was to have but one vote. There 
was no executive officer, but the governing power was 
placed in a committee composed of one delegate from each 
state. There was no national judiciary. While all mat- 
ters pertaining to war, finance, intercourse with nations, 
and disputes among states were under the control of Con- 
gress, yet this body had no power to enforce these rights. 
The Articles could not be amended without the consent of 
all the states. 

There were many defects in the Articles, as was seen at 
the time of their adoption, but they were the means of hold- 
ing the states in a bond of Union, and, when it came to for- 
eign affairs, Congress was able to make favorable negotia- 
tions for loans and trade treaties. The states were very 
slow in ratifying the Articles. It was not until 1781 that 
they were finally accepted by all of the states. 



194 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



OTHER IMPORTANT CHARACTERS OF THE 
REVOLUTION 

George Rogers Clark. — Among the Americans who op- 
posed the Indians during Lord Dunmore's War was a 

young Virginian, named 
George Rogers Clark. 
The Virginians having 
been successful at Point 
Pleasant, Clark and 
some of his neighbors 
moved farther out into 
the backwoods. When 
the Revolution broke 
out, the English used 
some of the frontier forts 
in the Northwest as mili- 
tary bases and invited 
the French and Indians 
to harass the border. 

Clark realized that, if 
the Americans were to 
hold their own in this 
district, some effort ought to be made to secure the western 
position. He applied to Patrick Henry, governor of Vir- 
ginia, for a commission, which was granted. Then Clark, 
with a company of one hundred and seventy-five men, set 
out for the west. 

Although Clark's companions were hardy frontiersmen, 
used to thrilling experiences, they had a difficult journey 
before them, and endured many hardships, traveling over 
seldom-used roads and often blazing their way through un- 
explored forests. After some time, they reached the Ohio 
River. 

On the 24th of June, 1778, they made their way to the 




George Rogers Clark. 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 



195 



old French fort, Kaskaskia, which was now owned by the 
English. When Clark arrived at the fort, a ball was going 
on. As he stood in the doorway watching the dance, an 
Indian espied the Ameri- 
can and gave a great 
war whoop. Clark then 
advanced and quietly 
said, " There is no dan- 
ger ; go on with your 
fun ; only remember 
that you are danc- 
ing under the flag of 
Virginia, and not of 
England." 

In a short time the 
town was in possession 
of the Americans. Clark 
made friends with many 
of the inhabitants, chief 
among whom was a 
French priest known as 
Father Gilbaut. Clark 
explained to him how 

the king of France was a friend of the Americans and 
how the Americans were righting for their rights. Clark 
was kind to the French settlers, and they seemed happy 
under the American rule. 

Later Cahokia, another French settlement, was taken 
by Clark, and in order to secure the western frontier, Clark 
then decided that Vincennes should be annexed. This 
was a very large fort on the Wabash River, having almost 
an entire French population. Father Gilbaut, now become 
a firm friend of the American cause, graciously offered to 
go to Vincennes to explain the American cause. Clark al- 
lowed him to do so. It was said that Father Gilbaut went 




Patrick Henry. 



196 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



among the French settlers and succeeded in getting the 
inhabitants to hoist the American flag. 

It was not long before this event reached the ears of 
the English commander, Hamilton, who was in charge of 
the district. He rallied a force of French and Indian scouts ; 




SCALE OF MILES 



The Western Country and the Route of George Rogers Clark. 



and, in a short time, he retook Vincennes, planned to re- 
capture Kaskaskia, and to seize the American settlement 
in Kentucky. When Clark heard of the English move- 
ment, he raised a force of men from Illinois ; and, with a 
company of one hundred American and French backwoods- 
men, he set out on the march toward Vincennes, a dis- 
tance of two hundred and thirty miles. It was one of the 
most trying undertakings. The season was wet and cold. 
Here many times the men waded " neck deep in icy water, 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 197 

worn with fatigue and hunger, camping on a marshy hil- 
lock in drizzling rain to shiver without food or fire through 
the night." The whole journey was full of danger and 
fatigue, but at last they reached the outskirts of the town. 
Clark skillfully marched his men back and forth in the 
edge of the woods to give the idea that he had a large force. 
Then after sending a bold letter to the French population, 
which kept them neutral, he attacked the fort and forced 
Hamilton to surrender. 

This daring conquest of the Northwest is very important 
in American history, for when the treaty of peace was 
signed, England agreed to grant to the Americans all of 
the territory east of the Mississippi and south of the 
Great Lakes. 

John Paul Jones. — Perhaps there is no hero of these 
stirring times more worthy of mention than John Paul 
Jones, the first to raise the American flag upon a man-of- 
war. Jones was born in Scotland, but came to America 
when he was five years old, and made his home in Baltimore 
until he was of age. 

In 1777 he sailed out of Chesapeake Bay in command of 
an American vessel, the Ranger. Making his way to the 
coast of the British Isles, he began to attack certain coast 
towns and soon captured the Drake, an English man-of- 
war. Jones took his prize to France, where, after some 
urgent appeals, he succeeded in getting the government to 
furnish him with a fleet of five vessels of which the most 
famous was the flag ship Bon Homme Richard. During 
the whole summer he sailed up and down the English coast, 
spreading terror to the natives and capturing many mer- 
chant vessels. 

In the latter part of September. Jones met an English 
merchant fleet that was being escorted by two vessels, one 
of which was the Sera pis. He made an attack upon this 
vessel in a naval fight which raged for three hours. The Bon 



198 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Homme Richard finally won the day, but was so badly 
damaged that Jones was obliged to transfer his crew to the 

captured ship 
and to sail away 
to Holland, 
where he was 
given protection 
from the Eng- 
lish. 

Later when he 
went to France, 
all Europe 
seemed to note 
his great victory 
and his wonder- 
ful skill. Cath- 
erine the Great 
of Russia and 
other monarchs 
of Europe be- 
stowed military 
honors upon the 
American com- 
mander, and of- 







; ' 




HI 1 m '■ P 




■ . 8f 


1 






1 


- 


%foag 


f" It - 


9HI 




*mm*~- 


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John Paul Jones. 



fered him a position in their navies. This victory of John 
Paul Jones stands out as the first important naval en- 
gagement of the Americans. 

Benjamin Franklin. — A study of the American Revolu- 
tion would be sadly incomplete if we did not mention the 
splendid service of this great American statesman. Frank- 
lin was born in Boston, and as a lad of twelve commenced 
to work in a printer's office. Later he went to Philadel- 
phia, poor and friendless, and began his lifework in that 
city. 

After a few years of experience in a printer's shop, he 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 



199 



went to England for the purpose of purchasing a new 
press for his company, but the funds failed to be sent to 
him, so he was obliged to remain in London and work 
until he could make enough to return to America. All of 
these proved to be valuable experiences, as Franklin was 
quick to learn, ready to observe, and shrewd in his plans. 
He lived such a temperate life that in the English printing 

shop he was known as 

the " fresh- water lad " 
because he refused to 
drink ale or beer. 

In his work, Franklin 
was thrown in contact 
with the works of the 
best writers of the times. 
It was not very long be- 
fore he was familiar with 
the standard literature 
of his day, and well 
versed in the scientific 
activities, as well as po- 
litical questions, of the 
hour. 

When Franklin re- 
turned to America he 

made his permanent home in Philadelphia, where he 
opened a printing office and published a newspaper and 
a magazine. The latter was known as Poor Richard's 
Almanac. Later he established the Saturday Evening Post. 
Franklin also wrote an autobiography, and, at the same 
time, made scientific experiments, the most important of 
which was the discovery of electricity as found in light- 
ning. Yet it is not upon these interests that we wish to 
dwell, but rather upon Franklin's great service to the 
American nation as a diplomat. 




Benjamin Franklin. 



200 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Always profoundly interested in the welfare of his 
country, Franklin was constantly planning to secure 
the largest and most permanent good for the colonies. 
Since it had been his idea that a union of all the colonies 
should be formed at the time of the French and Indian War, 
when the grave problem of colonial taxation faced the 
Americans, Franklin was chosen by a number of colonies 
as their special agent to go to England to adjust their rights 
and privileges. Finally, when the great discussion over 
the Stamp Act took place, Congress selected him to go before 
the English authorities and urge the repeal of the law. 
We remember that his efforts met with success and the act 
was removed. During the Revolution, Franklin, as a 
member of the Continental Congress, made his excellent 
judgment felt all through the grave, trying sessions of 
this body. 

When the efforts to secure aid from France seemed almost 
hopeless, Congress sent Franklin over as their special 
minister. Of him it was said that his fine judgment and 
clear understanding of the rights of the people were so well 
known that it was written " that his reputation was more 
universal than Newton, Voltaire, or Frederick the Great. 
Of love and esteem, too, he had more than they. Not 
only was his name familiar to nobility, clergy, and philos- 
ophers, but there was scarcely a peasant, a citizen, a coach- 
man, or footman, a lady's maid, or a scullion in the kitchen 
who was not familiar with it, and who did not consider him 
a friend to human kind." He was a very old man when 
he went to Paris on this important commission, and every- 
where he was greeted with great enthusiasm. " At enter- 
tainments beautiful women vied with each other to place 
on his white head a crown of laurels. ... He grew weary 
of sitting for busts, portraits, and medals. On every 
jeweler's counter his benign features were set in innumer- 
able rings, watches, snuff boxes and bracelets." 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 201 

With all this attention, we find him the same straight- 
forward man, simple in his tastes and speech and earnestly 
working to accomplish the difficult task before him. He 
wrote from France, " It is my intention, while I stay here, 
to procure what advantages I can for our country by en- 
deavoring to please the court." The result was an open 
alliance with the Americans and aid in the form of troops, a 
fleet, and a large loan. It was the first treaty made by 
the United States with a foreign country and stands at the 
head of the long list of diplomatic negotiations of which 
our country is justly proud. 

Upon his return to America at the close of the Ameri- 
can Revolution, Franklin devoted his time to creating 
public opinion in favor of a strong national government. 
When the Constitutional Convention was called, he was 
one of the delegates from Pennsylvania, and gave great 
aid in rearranging the new form of government and 
urging the ratification of the Constitution. The city of 
Philadelphia is proud to refer to Franklin's splendid 
civic work in establishing the first library, in promot- 
ing the first fire department, in organizing the regular 
police system for city protection, and in beginning count- 
less other movements for the general welfare of the 
community. 

Bernardo de Galvez. — One of the most interesting char- 
acters of this period of American history was Bernardo de 
Galvez, the daring young Spanish governor of Louisiana. 
Galvez was but twenty-three years of age when he under- 
took to wrest from the British the Florida territory that 
the latter had received at the close of the French and 
Indian War. 

In the year 1779 Spain joined France in the war against 
England, and at this time gave the Americans the right 
to come up the Mississippi and attack the British forts 
along that stream. At the same time Galvez also 



202 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



planned to make an attack. Since he had a few Spanish 
troops at his command, when he made known his 

scheme, he had no 
difficulty in gaining the 
support of the inhab- 
itants of Louisiana. 
French Creoles, Ger- 
mans, Acadians, all 
united to form an army, 
and with the addition 
of some Indians and a 
company of negroes, 
Galvez made his first 
attack against Baton 
Rouge. This city sur- 
rendered. 

He then proceeded by 
way of Lake Pontchar- 
train to the Gulf, here 
captured a number of 
smaller forts, and finally forced the surrender of Mobile 
and of Pensacola. When the treaty of peace was signed, 
England recognized this work by agreeing to surrender 
all of Florida to Spain. 




Bernardo de Galvez. 



Topical Outline 

Revolution Begins. 
I. Battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775. 
II. Ticonderoga. 

III. Bunker Hill. 

IV. Aggressive Plan of British. 

1. To cut off New England from Other Colonies. 

2. Blockade American Ports. 

3. Capture Philadelphia. 

4. Organize Tory Forces of South. 



REVOLUTION BEGINS 203 

V. Operation of First British Plan. 

1. Siege of Boston, 1 775-1 776. 

2. Americans Attack Canada, 1775. 

3. Lord Dunmore's War, 1776. 

4. Battle of Moore's Creek, 1776. 
VI. Civil Events of Revolution. 

1. Plans for Independence. 

2. Mecklenburg Declaration, 1775. 

3. Declaration of Independence (1776). 
VII. Operation of Second British Plan. 

1. British Capture New York. 

2. American Victory at Trenton. 

3. Financial Distress. 

4. The Crisis. 

5. Washington's Influence. 
VIII. Operation of Third British Plan. 

1. British Occupy Philadelphia. 

2. French Aid. 

3. Arnold's Treason. 

IX. Operation of Fourth British Plan. 

1. Battle of King's Mountain. 

2. Battle of Cowpens and Green's Retreat. 

3. Surrender of Cornwallis. 
X. Treaty of Paris. 

XI. The Articles of Confederation. 
XII. Other Important Characters of Revolution. 

1. George Rogers Clark. 

2. John Paul Jones. 

3. Benjamin Franklin. 

4. Bernardo de Galvez. 

Review Questions 

1. Describe the first military engagements of the Revolution. 

2. Who was made commander-in-chief of the American army? 

3. What was the British plan for subduing the Americans? 

4. Give an account of Washington's plans for driving the British 
out of Massachusetts. 

5. Describe the American invasion of Canada.. 

6. What was meant by Lord Dunmore's War? 

7. What were the preliminary steps toward the adoption of the 
Declaration of Independence ? 



204 AMERICAN HISTORY 

8. Tell something of the engagements around New York. 

9. Describe Washington's victory at Trenton. 

10. What service did Robert Morris give to the government dur- 
ing the Revolution? 

11. Who wrote the Crisis and Common Sense? What was the 
effect of these works? 

12. Why is the battle of Saratoga called the decisive battle of the 
Revolution ? 

13. Describe the winter at Valley Forge. 

14. What foreign nation gave aid to the American colonies? 

15. Who were some of the foreigners that assisted in the Revolu- 
tion? 

16. Give an account of Arnold's treason. 

17. Give a brief account of the War in the South. 

18. When and where was the final surrender of the British made? 

19. Where was the treaty of peace signed? 

20. What were the Articles of Confederation ? 

21. Why should these men be remembered : George Rogers Clark, 
John Paul Jones, Benjamin Franklin, Bernardo de Galvez? 

References 
See Chapter IX. 



CHAPTER XI 
NATIONAL DIFFICULTIES 

State Government. — During the American Revolution, 
many of the states adopted provisional governments based 
upon their old charters. The government was largely in 
the hands of a governor and a local assembly. The local 
courts were presided over by judges appointed by the 
assembly. 

When war was over an attempt was made by the states 
to make their government permanent, and to arrange their 
state constitutions so as to meet the needs of their com- 
munities. The plan of reorganization brought about some 
serious difficulties. The states, being jealous of each 
other's growing power, made many efforts to advance their 
own interests. They were especially anxious about com- 
mercial advantages. Each levied taxes upon all foreign 
imports and even went so far as to tax the goods coming 
from one state into another. They vied with each other in 
trying to secure foreign treaties, and entered into serious 
disputes over boundaries and the navigation of rivers. 

General Needs for Union. — When the treaty of peace 
was signed, it was agreed that the debts due British subjects 
should be paid, but many of these payments were neglected. 
Because of this, England refused to remove her troops 
from the back country. These forces with their Indian 
allies proved a menace to the Americans migrating into the 
Northwest. American ships had been captured by the 
Barbary pirates. There was no strong national force to 
adjust all of these conditions. 

205 



206 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Principal Needs for Union. — There were many other 
needs for a firm union of the states, but the principal ones 
may be summed up as follows : 

First, to make foreign treaties and secure strong trade relations 
between America and Europe. 

Second, to pay the national debt incurred during the Revolution 
and thus insure the future of the United States. 

Third, to secure control of the Northwest territory so as to give 
opportunity for safe emigration to the West. 




Mount Vernon. 

Fourth, to have a uniform tariff on all foreign goods and to regu- 
late interstate trade. * 

Fifth, to fix boundaries and adjust the problem of free navigation 
of inland streams. 

Sixth, to establish a uniform money system and fix the standard of 
weights and measures. 

Seventh, to secure a uniform postal service so as to make communi- 
cation easy and inexpensive. 

First Conference. — In 1785, a conference of Virginia 
and Maryland representatives met at Alexandria to decide 
the question of the navigation of the Potomac. It was 
agreed to confer with Washington at his home at Mount 



NATIONAL DIFFICULTIES 207 

Vernon. During the conference it was decided that, as 
many of the questions brought up could not be settled by 
these states alone, it might be well to call a convention of 
the states to meet in Annapolis the next year. 

On September n, 1786, twelve commissioners met, rep- 
resenting the states of New York, New Jersey, Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware, and Virginia. Plans for adjusting the 
interests of the states were again discussed, but these dele- 
gates also realized that it was most urgent to get all of the 
states interested, and so another call was issued for a con- 
vention to be held in Philadelphia, the next May. 

Constitutional Convention. — Each state selected the 
strongest men to represent them in this convention, for 
each knew that grave questions had to be settled. Of the 
fifty-five delegates, upward of thirty were lawyers. All 
of the states were represented except Rhode Island. The 
convention formally opened with Washington as President 
and William Jackson as Secretary. For several months 
daily sessions were held behind closed doors in order that 
debates might be free and discussions might not be mis- 
quoted and misunderstood. There were three great com- 
promises made before the final draft of the Constitution was 
adopted. The first was on the question of representation. 

Virginia Plan. — This plan, presented by the delegates 
from Virginia and representing the wishes of most of the 
larger states, was as follows : " That the Legislative branch 
should consist of two houses, the first elected by the people 
of the states for three years, the second by the state legis- 
lature for seven years ; the executive should be chosen by 
the two houses of the national legislature. The repre- 
sentation in each house should be according to the respec- 
tive population of the states or their quotas of contribu- 
tion." This was opposed by the smaller states who realized 
that they would always be outnumbered by the larger 
commonwealths. 



2o8 AMERICAN HISTORY 

New Jersey Plan. — The smaller states were represented 
by New Jersey, who presented a plan whereby the states 
should have equal representation in the Congress and 
the old form of the Articles of Confederation should be 
revised. Since this was not satisfactory, a compromise was 
offered by Connecticut. It provided that each state was 
to have equal representation in the Senate, and representa- 
tion in the lower house according to the population. This 
plan was accepted ; and arrangements were made whereby 
the members of the House of Representatives were to be 
elected every two years, and the Senators every six years. 

Other Compromises. — There was some discussion as 
to the status of negroes and how they should be counted. 
It was agreed that the count should be made on the basis 
of rive negroes for three white persons. This was known 
as the three-fifths ratio. Some members of the convention 
wished a provision whereby the foreign slave trade should 
be abolished. This involved the question of Congressional 
control of commerce, and caused much discussion. It was 
at last decided that the foreign slave trade should continue 
until 1808, that a tax of ten dollars per capita should be 
paid on all imported slaves, and further, that only a majority 
vote was needed to give Congress the power to pass trade 
laws. 

Adoption of Constitution. — It was agreed that as soon 
as two thirds of the states should adopt the Constitution, 
it should be recognized as the formal system of national 
government. 

Survey. — When it was publicly announced that nine 
states had ratified the Constitution, there was great joy 
throughout the country. 

In Philadelphia, a grand celebration took place on the 
Fourth of July in special honor of the event. Five thousand 
people formed an imposing parade ; and speech making and 
fireworks carried the celebration far into the night. 



NATIONAL DIFFICULTIES 



209 



In New York City there was a similar demonstration, 
in which a pageant representing the " Ship of State " was 
drawn through the streets on floats to illustrate the adop- 
tion of the Constitution. 

Bill of Rights. — While the Constitution defined the ob- 
jects and purposes of the government, there were certain 
rights and privileges of the people that were not plainly 
stated. Then a series of amendments was added that se- 
cured to the American people such rights as free exercise of 
religion, right of trial by jury, protection of their homes 
against unreasonable search, freedom of press and of 
speech, and the right of personal defense against attack. 
These articles were known as the Bill of Rights and proved 
of great value to the whole people. These amendments 
were adopted during Washington's first administration. 



INDUSTRIAL AND SOCIAL CONDITIONS 

Manufacture of Cloth. — At the time of the adoption 
of the Constitution the population of the United States 
had greatly increased and 
the immigration to the new |s^ 

country steadily continued. 
There was an urgent demand 
for manufactures. As early 
as 1790, Samuel Slater, an 
Englishman, set up a regular 
mill at Pawtucket, Rhode 
Island. This was followed 
by others. Spinning and 
weaving by machinery be- 
came common in the eastern 
and middle states. 

Cotton Gin. — In 1793 Eli Whitney invented the cotton 
gin, which soon proved a success,, and made the culture of 




The First Cotton Gin. 



2IO 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



cotton more profitable, as the fiber or lint could be separated 
from the seed by the new gin with very little trouble. New 
lands were opened in the South and large plantations were 
planted down in cotton. This plant vied with tobacco 
in becoming the staple crop of the southern states. Con- 
siderable indigo was also raised in the South, but in 1794 

many of the plants were 
destroyed by a worm 
which appeared in the 
country, and the crop was 
almost a failure. 

Sugar Making. — In 
Louisiana some of the 
planters suffered so 
heavily that they turned 
their attention to the cul- 
ture of sugar cane. In 
1795, Etienne de Bore 
succeeded in making the 
cane juice granulate. 
The interest of the South was also directed toward sugar 
making. 

Ordinance of 1787. — New roads were opened up from 
the East to the West, and many families moved out into 
the " great wilderness," as it was called. By 1787 these 
settlers asked Congress to grant them a form of territorial 
government. This was done under the ordinance of 1787. 
The form of government provided for free exercise of 
religion, liberal education, and the prohibition of slavery 
within the boundaries of the territory. Emigration to the 
West continued so steadily that by 1800 the greater part 
of the Northwest territory was divided into states which 
were promptly admitted into the Union. 

Steamboats. — Transportation was markedly limited. 
Many attempts were made to secure easy navigation of 




Etienne de Bore. 



NATIONAL DIFFICULTIES 



211 



the rivers. As early as 1784, James Rumsey, of Maryland, 
exhibited to Washington the model of a boat for stemming 
the current of rivers by the force of steam. In 1787, 
Rumsey launched a steamboat on the Potomac which made 
a short but successful journey. He was granted the rights 
of navigating the streams of New York, Maryland, and Vir- 
ginia. Great interest was taken in Rumsey's invention. A 







The Clermont. 



society for the promotion of his plans was organized in 
Philadelphia in 1788. 

John Fitch also made an experiment with the use of 
steam in propelling a boat from Trenton to Philadelphia 
in 1790. But it was not until 1807 that the experiment be- 
came of practical value, when Robert Fulton launched the 
Clermont on the Hudson, and made a successful trip from 
New York to Albany. 

In 181 2 the New Orleans was launched at Pittsburgh 
and made the first trip from that city down the Ohio and 
thence to the Mississippi, upon which it successfully 



212 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



steamed its way down to New Orleans. These practical 
demonstrations of steam navigation opened the way for 
large advances in commerce and the internal improvement 
of the country. Mills and factories of various kinds 
were opened in the country, and it was not long before many 
of the industries of Europe were reproduced in America. 





k 


,**'*"- *#/ I * ^H 


IB 







A Southern Manor House. 

Social Life. — The social life of the new states was more 
democratic than that of Europe. Men and women were 
more closely drawn together by common interests than in 
the Old World. There were some differences between the 
wealthy and the poor in regard to the general forms of 
society, but there were no great extremes of wealth and 
poverty, and there were no ranks or titles except those 
that were given to certain professions. 

In the large cities of the East there were beautiful town 



NATIONAL DIFFICULTIES 213 

houses with richly furnished interiors ; many of them were 
adorned with handsome furniture and tapestries from 
Europe ; and their owners dressed and lived in elegant 
style. 

In the South, where the plantation system prevailed, 
the spacious manor houses were equally well furnished, and 
entertainments and hospitality were in full evidence. 

Everywhere there was an air of prosperity. The people 
who were struggling forward realized that they might reach 
the goal of a comfortable and well-to-do existence if they 
would but work earnestly and energetically. Many could 
point with pride to the accumulation of wealth about them 
and relate how they had secured it within a lifetime. 

Topical Outline 

I. National Difficulties. 

1. State Government. 

2. Needs for Union. 

3. Constitutional Convention. 

a. Virginia Plan. 

b. New Jersey Plan. 

c. Connecticut Compromise. 

d. Other Compromises. 

e. Constitution Adopted. 

4. Bill of Rights. 

II. Industrial and Social Conditions. 

1. Manufacture of Cloth. 

2. Cotton Gin. 

3. Sugar Making. 

4. Ordinance of 1787. 

5. Steamboats. 

6. Social Life. 

7. Education. 

Review Questions 

1 . What were the political conditions in the colonies at the close of 
the Revolution ? 

2. State the principal needs for union. 



214 AMERICAN HISTORY 

3. When and where did the Constitutional Convention meet? 

4. What were the Virginia and New Jersey plans for national 
government ? What was meant by the Connecticut Compromise ? 

5. What other compromises were adopted? 

6. What is meant by the American Bill of Rights? 

7. Who invented the cotton gin ? 

8. Who was the first successful cane grower in Louisiana? 

9. Who invented the first successful steamboat ? 

10. What was the ordinance of 1787? 

11. Trace the voyage of a steamboat from Pittsburgh to New 
Orleans. 

12. How did transportation by water help in the development of 
this country ? 

13. What means of transportation has largely taken the place of 
steamboats to-day? 

14. In what occupations were the people of your state engaged in 
1800? Describe the home life of people of that time. 



References 

Hinsdale : American Government. 

Coman : Industrial History of United States. 



CHAPTER XII 



NEW GOVERNMENT 

Washington chosen President. — When the new gov- 
ernment went into effect, Washington was unanimously 
chosen President of the United States. John Adams was 
elected Vice Presi- 



dent, 
made 



Plans were 
for their 




inauguration in 
April of 1789. 
New York was se- 
lected as the capi- 
tal, and special 
preparations were 
made for the new 
President's recep- 
tion. Washing- 
ton's trip from 
Virginia to New 
York was one 
of grand triumph. 
Town after town 
that he passed 
through made 
every effort to honor him. Arches of evergreen were 
erected that he might pass under them, and flowers were 
strewn in his path. When he reached New York, the city 
was crowded to the utmost, and gay and festive decora- 
tions were seen on every hand. It was everywhere manifest 

215 



George Washington. 



2l6 AMERICAN HISTORY 

that the people were happy to have a national government 
and that they were satisfied with the selection of Wash- 
ington as President. 

Washington took the oath of office from the Federal 
Building in the presence of a vast concourse of people. 
Congress then prepared to begin the regular routine of 
government, and immediately provided for four executive 
departments to aid the President. 

The First Cabinet. — Washington made the following 
appointments to fill ' these offices : Thomas Jefferson, 
Secretary of State ; Henry Knox, Secretary of War ; 
Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury; and 
Samuel Osgood, Postmaster-General. These men took up 
the affairs of their respective departments, Washington 
had them confer with him from time to time, and thus there 
came to be formed what is known as the President's Cabinet. 
Regular federal courts were created, and John Jay was 
appointed first Supreme Justice of the United States. 

First Work in Congress. National Debt. — One of the 
first questions taken up by Congress was the payment of 
the national debt. Hamilton in his report divided the debt 
into three sections : first, that due to foreign countries, 
France, Spain, and Holland; second, that due to private 
individuals; third, that due by the states. In the third 
case the debt represented certain amounts that the states 
had promised to carry during the American Revolution 
as their part of the expense. 

National Capital. — The first government was held in 
New York City, but later, through special invitation, it 
was transferred to Philadelphia, the seat of the old Con- 
tinental Congress and the Constitutional Convention. 
There was a strong inclination to make this city the per- 
manent capital, but the southern delegates, finding the site 
too far from their homes, urged a more central location. 
When the Constitution was framed a provision had been 



NEW GOVERNMENT 217 

inserted that gave the national government the right to 
select a site ten miles square in which to locate the capital, 
and provided that Congress should have complete control 
of this district. Virginia and Maryland offered a tract of 
land ten miles square on the Potomac and proceeded to urge 
the change of the capital. 

About this time, there was much debate in Congress 
over the question of the national government's assuming 
the debts due the Revolutionary expenses by the states. 
New England favored the assumption and also approved 
of Philadelphia as the national capital. The southern 
states believed that each state should be responsible for 
this obligation. Because of this situation in Congress, 
Hamilton suggested that a compromise might be made 
whereby a settlement of the questions could be effected. 

It was finally agreed that the government should assume 
all the state debts, that the new capital should be built 
on the Potomac, and that, in the meantime, while the new 
public buildings were in construction, the capital should 
continue at Philadelphia. 

PAYMENT OF THE NATIONAL DEBT 

Hamilton's Plan. — The entire debt, interest and princi- 
pal, amounted to upward of $75,000,000. Hamilton pro- 
posed to fund the whole into United States bonds bearing 
six per cent interest. The sale of these bonds would furnish 
money to pay the debt, and the interest could be provided 
for by a series of taxes upon imported goods. 

Tariff. — This plan brought about the adoption of the 
Tariff Act of 1789, which was slightly protective, but was 
prepared solely with the idea of securing a definite revenue 
with which to carry on the expense of government. In 1790 
Congress decided to levy a tax upon distilled liquors. This 
caused serious opposition. When an attempt was made to 



2l8 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



collect the tax in western Pennsylvania, the farmers of 
that section raised so strong a protest that it was necessary 
for Washington to call out the militia to assist the revenue 
officers and put down the outbreak. This episode is known 
as the Whisky Rebellion. 

Establishment of a Bank. — Hamilton made a third re- 
port to Congress in the following year, when he urged the 

establishment of a na- 
tional bank. This met 
with marked opposition 
by Jefferson and other 
representative men. 
They believed that it 
would be unwise for the 
United States govern- 
ment to go on record as 
organizing an institution 
such as the bank when 
there was no authority 
for this organization in 
the Constitution. There 
seemed to be so great a 
need for the bank that 
Washington yielded to Hamilton's arguments ; and, when 
Congress passed the bill, Washington signed it; and it 
became a law. The bank of North America in Philadelphia, 
which was one of the most reliable institutions in the coun- 
try, was recognized and given a twenty-year charter from 
Congress under the title of the United States Bank. The 
government was to hold one fifth of the entire stock and 
have other advantages as well. The government funds 
were to be placed in deposit in this bank and the " bank 
was to make government exchanges, keep treasury balances, 
and on occasions to make advances to supply temporary 
public needs." 




Alexander Hamilton. 



NEW GOVERNMENT 



219 



United States Mint. — The next consideration of Con- 
gress, in regard to the money question, was the establish- 
ment of a mint at Philadelphia, 1790. There was a great 
variety of foreign coins in the States, the value of which 
was determined by their metal and weight. It was very 
troublesome to keep values correct and make proper change. 

Decimal System. — It was finally agreed to accept a 
decimal system, that is, counting by tens, and to use the 
dollar as the standard of value. Gold and silver were 
used and the ratio of 
fifteen to one was ac- 
cepted, as, in 1792, fif- 
teen silver dollars would 
be equal to the value of 
one gold dollar accord- 
ing to the market value 
of metals. The designs 
selected for the coin 
were, on the face, the 
goddess of liberty and 
thirteen stars ; and, on 
the reverse, an eagle rep- 
resenting freedom, hold- 
ing in one claw a bundle 
of arrows signifying pro- 
tection, and in the other 
an olive branch, the 
symbol of peace. 

In order to encourage 
coinage, the government agreed to coin free certain amounts 
of gold and silver. Prosperity seemed to attend the new 
government. As the taxes came in, all the interest on the 
debt was paid, and a part of the principal steadily reduced 
as the bonds were sold. 

Indian Troubles. — Emigration toward the west con- 




General Anthony Wayne. 



220 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



tinued. Very soon the settlers built nourishing towns and 
opened up large farms. But there was still much danger 
from the Indians. Washington was obliged to send several 
generals with armies to assist the settlers in the defense of 
their homes. The most successful of these officers was 
General Anthony Wayne, who forced the Indians of the 
Northwest territory to make a permanent treaty with the 
Americans. 

British Troops in the Northwest. — Another trouble that 
annoyed the frontiersmen was the conflicts between the 



.*-* 



s&ffii rffe&a 






WJBSm'. 






•■SfSffi/Hlll 




Navigation on the Ohio River. 



French and Indian trappers of the Great Lakes region. 
Here the English government insisted upon keeping garri- 
sons of British soldiers ; and it was rumored that these en- 
couraged the outrages committed by the Indians. It was 
not until Washington succeeded in getting Jay to arrange 
a treaty with Great Britain that these troops were removed, 
making the western district more secure to the settlers. 

Navigation of the Mississippi. — One of the most trying 
situations was faced by the settlers along the Ohio and the 



NEW GOVERNMENT 221 

neighboring streams, who used the Mississippi River as a 
means of transporting their goods to the Gulf of Mexico, and 
thence by European ships to foreign ports. It was custom- 
ary for these settlers to take their supplies down the stream 
on natboats as far as New Orleans, and there load them on 
the ocean-going ships. But the collectors of customs of the 
Spanish government became very unreasonable in their 
large charges and insolent conduct, so much so, that Wash- 
ington was obliged to seek redress at Madrid, the Spanish 
capital. Finally a treaty was signed that gave better 
privileges to the westerners. Then for a few years condi- 
tions were fairly satisfactory. 

Problem of Neutrality. — The most trying experiences of 
Washington's administration were concerned with preserv- 
ing a position of neutrality while all of Europe was at war. 
The old Bourbon Party that had signed the treaty of 
alliance with the Americans during the Revolution had 
been deposed, and a new party favoring Republican ideas 
had taken possession of the French government. As these 
leaders were the promoters of the French Revolution, 
for a long time France was in a state of great unrest. 
The new government in France was not recognized by the 
other European powers. Thus it was not long until the 
whole of Europe was threatened by a serious war. 

About this time Napoleon, a capable French soldier, 
took charge of affairs in France, placed the entire coun- 
try under military rule, and then began the tierce struggle 
between France and the rest of Europe. 

Since the principal nations at war had interests in America, 
it was very difficult to keep on equal terms with each with- 
out rousing suspicions of partiality. There was a demand 
for American products. If these were sent either to Eu- 
rope or the West Indies, there was always danger of inter- 
ference with trade. 

England stopped our ships to search for British sailors 



222 AMERICAN HISTORY 

that had deserted from her navy ; and, whether these were 
found or not, many American seamen were accused of being 
British subjects and were impressed into English forces. 

France sent an ambassador to America with the hope of 
securing an alliance, but the United States was not prepared 
to enter the war, nor was the American government in a 
humor to cancel the friendly relations with the rest of 
Europe in order to support the existing French government. 

Washington had a very serious time with the French 
minister, Genet, who insisted upon visiting certain cities 
and arousing special sympathy with the French Revolution. 
Washington was obliged to ask France to recall Genet. 
In this many Americans felt disappointed at Washington's 
attitude, as they were in cordial sympathy with the French 
movement. 

England, in the meantime, grew more and more annoying 
to the American shipping interests. After a time Wash- 
ington sent John Jay, Chief Justice, on a mission to Eng- 
land to adjust the strained relations. 

Jay's Treaty. — The English government removed the 
British troops from Northwest territory, as we have men- 
tioned, but as to making amends for the insults to Ameri- 
can seamen, they did nothing. The people of the United 
States were so indignant over Jay's treaty, that when Hamil- 
ton was addressing a meeting in behalf of the treaty, the 
crowd jeered and threw stones at him. France declared 
that we had favored England in the treaty, and threatened 
to declare war against us. It was altogether a most un- 
fortunate situation, which caused Washington and his 
Cabinet no little distress. 

About this time, Washington's second term of office 
was drawing to a close, and he declined a third nomination. 
In withdrawing from public life, Washington made a memo- 
rable address in which he urged the American people to 
continue the policy of neutrality, and warned them about 



NEW GOVERNMENT 



223 



allowing their personal feelings so to dominate their better 
judgment as to allow party spirit to prevail and destroy 
the unity of the nation. 

Washington's Last Days. — In 1797 Washington retired 
to his old home at Mount Vernon. There, amid the quiet 
of his pleasant surroundings, he passed the remainder of 
his days. He died in 1799, deeply mourned by all the 
American people. France and England paid high tribute 
to his great military genius and to his lofty statesmanship. 
Election of % John Adams, 1796. — At the close of 
Washington's administration there were two political 
factions in existence, 
which were destined 
to grow into two 
strong political par- 
ties. One was known 
as the Federalist 
Party and the other 
as the Anti-Federalist. 
The members of the 
first were strongly 
in favor of a central- 
ized government with 
large and independent 
rights or powers, and 
the other favored lib- 
eral construction of 
the Constitution as 
regards the adminis- 
tration of govern- 
ment. J° HN Adams. 

The Federalists were represented by Hamilton and 
Adams. Washington was also in favor of their principles. 
The Anti-Federalists were led by Jefferson and Madison. 
This party was in favor of strict construction of the Con- 




224 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



stitution and strong protection of the sovereign or original 
rights of the states. When Washington's refusal of the 
nomination for a third term was received, the Federalists 
announced as their candidate John Adams ; the Anti- 
Federalists supported Thomas Jefferson. Adams won, 
and according to the custom of the time, Jefferson, who re- 
ceived the next highest number of votes, was elected Vice 
President. As this was not a wise provision, an amend- 
ment to the Constitu- 
tion was made whereby 
the President and the 
Vice President should 
thereafter be of the same 
platform or party. 

Foreign Affairs. — 
When Adams assumed 
the affairs of govern- 
ment he was confronted 
with the same difficul- 
ties concerning foreign 
affairs as had disturbed 
Washington's adminis- 
tration. France, still 
offended by Jay's treaty, 
indignantly dismissed 
the American minister, 
General Pinckney, and began capturing our vessels. Adams 
was obliged to call an extra session of Congress and to send 
John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry to meet with Pinckney 
to try to adjust affairs with France. 

The French government sent commissioners to inform 
the Americans that negotiations for peace might be arranged 
if the American government would pay a certain sum to 
the members of the " Directory," as the French government 
was called. Pinckney was disgusted and indignantly de- 




John Marshall. 



NEW GOVERNMENT 225 

clared that the United States would pay " millions for 
defense, but not one cent for tribute." Adams in making 
his report to Congress referred to the Agents as Mr. X, 
Mr. Y, and Mr. Z, and because of this, the episode is called 
the " X, Y, Z affair." 

This incident caused great feeling in America ; the former 
sympathy for France was turned into enmity ; and Pinck- 
ney's stirring words became the cry all over the country. 
So great was the feeling of resentment that French colors 
and flags were put aside, and French fashions, which had 
been very popular, were discarded. The American govern- 
ment looked upon the situation as serious enough to reen- 
force the army and order the construction of some new war 
vessels. Napoleon realized that the situation was critical, 
and he quickly readjusted matters so that the question of war 
was dropped. 

Alien and Sedition Laws. — All through this period in 
America there was strong sympathy with the Federalist 
party in regard to the war with France. Now it looked as if 
the entire nation would support the policies of this faction, 
but the leaders overstepped their power by enacting some 
very objectionable laws. Among these was the Naturaliza- 
tion Act, which provided that a foreigner must reside in 
America fourteen years before he could become a citizen. 

The Alien Act gave the President power to send out of 
the country any foreigner whom he might judge to be in 
any way dangerous to the peace and welfare of the country. 
Under this act, trial by jury was not necessary. Both of 
these acts seemed to give the President far more power than 
the Constitution had intended. 

The next act, known as the. Sedition Law, declared fine 
and imprisonment for " false, scandalous, and malicious 
writings " against the government or any official. This 
was declared to be an attempt to limit freedom of expression 
and to cut off the freedom of the press. Both Hamilton and 
Q 



226 AMERICAN HISTORY 

John Marshall, who were stanch Federalists, were opposed 
to these acts. It was only a short time until the Anti- 
Federalists were loud in their denunciation of the new laws. 

Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1 798-1 799. — Against 
these acts James Madison drafted some vigorous resolu- 
tions, which the Virginia legislature promptly adopted. 
Kentucky, also, adopted a set of resolutions that had been 
prepared by Thomas Jefferson and that were more intense 
in their denunciation of President Adams' action. The 
latter declared that the states had a right to judge of the 
constitutionality of any laws passed by Congress. This 
led the way for strong sentiment in favor of nullification. 

So unpopular were Adams and his party, because of this 
legislation, that the opposition laid the plan for their 
defeat in the next election. Thomas Jefferson, the great 
leader of the Anti-Federalist or Democrat-Republican 
Party, and Aaron Burr, a wily politician of New York, 
were elected over Adams and Pinckney. 

Topical Outline 

New Government. 

I. Washington Chosen President. 
II. First Cabinet. 

III. Work of Congress. 

IV. National Capital. 

V. Payment of National Debt. 

VI. Establishment of National Bank. 

VII. United States Mint. 

VIII. Indian Troubles. 

IX. British Troops in Northwest. 

X. Navigation of the Mississippi River. 

XL Problem of Neutrality. 

XII. Jay's Treaty. 

XIII. Election of John Adams. 

XIV. Foreign Affair. 

XV. Alien and Sedition Acts. 
XVI. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. 



NEW GOVERNMENT 227 



Review Questions 



1. Describe the organization of the new government. 

2. Give an account of Washington's inauguration. 

3. W T hom did the President choose for his cabinet officers? For 
what department was each chosen ? 

4. What were the important issues before the President and 
Congress ? 

5. What was Hamilton's plan in regard to the national debt? 

6. Describe the establishment of the first national bank. 

7. Where was the first mint erected? 

8. What system of money did the United States adopt? 

9. Give an account of the Indian troubles during Washington's 
administration. 

10. What foreign troubles disturbed Washington's administra- 
tion? 

11. What treaties were made at this time? 

12. What advice did Washington give the American people in his 
farewell address ? 

13. What was meant by the terms : Federalists and Anti-Federal- 
ists? 

14. Give an account of the election of President Adams. 

15. What was the French Naval War? 

16. What was the X. Y. Z. affair? 

17. What were the Alien and Sedition Laws? Why were these 
laws passed ? 

18. Who opposed these laws ? Why? 



References 

Lodge : George Washington. 
Hinsdale : Old Northwest. 
Fiske : The Critical Period. 



CHAPTER XIII 



JEFFERSONIAN DEMOCRACY 

Inauguration of Jefferson. — After the Americans won 
their independence, it was generally thought that the 
new nation had gone far ahead in ideas of democracy 

and the rights of man. 
The idea of equal rights 
had become one of the 
most absorbing topics in 
Europe. This was es- 
pecially so in France, 
where Democratic 
leaders swept away all 
the old-time ideas of 
royalty, and class dis- 
tinctions became un- 
known. Many Ameri- 
cans looked upon the 
French Revolution with 
sympathetic interest ; 
throughout the country 
French ideas and litera- 
ture were discussed ; and clubs were formed that fostered 
these new phases of thought. 

Among the most ardent of these advocates was Thomas 
Jefferson, the great leader of the Anti-Federalists. From 
a social standpoint, Jefferson represented an old aristocratic 
family of Virginia. He was well educated, a brilliant 
lawyer, a devoted student of philosophy, a well-versed 

228 




Thomas Jefferson. 



JEFFERSONIAN DEMOCRACY 229 

diplomat, and a musician of marked ability. With all 
his attainments he assumed the simplest of manners and 
customs in dress and speech and showed the most Repub- 
lican ideas in all his plans. 

At the time of Jefferson's inauguration, the new capital 
was but a village within a wood, hence it was quite impossi- 
ble to give to this event an imposing character such as had 
characterized Washington's advent to the Presidency. 
Instead of riding in state to the Capitol, Jefferson walked 
from his lodgings to the Senate, where he was to receive 
the oath of office, accompanied by a few friends, the secre- 
taries of the navy and the treasury, and attended by the 
local militia. 

In his inaugural message to Congress, Jefferson urged : 
" . . . equal justice to all men of whatever state or per- 
suasion, religious or political ; peace, commerce, and 
honest friendship with all nations, entangling alliances 
with none." He also recommended economy in national 
expenses, payment of debts, encouragement of agriculture, 
education, justice, freedom of religion, freedom of the 
press, freedom of the person. 

War with Tripoli. — Jefferson was an ardent advocate 
of peace. He urged that the appropriation for both the 
navy and army be limited and that any surplus moneys be 
used to pay the national debt. But in 1801 the Americans 
were drawn into war with Tripoli, one of the Barbary 
states. 

This African coast had been a terror to American, as 
well as European, seamen, owing to the pirates that in- 
fested the region. It was estimated that as early as 1793, 
eleven American ships and one hundred and twelve sea- 
men and passengers had been seized by Tripolitan pirates 
and that upward of a million dollars in presents and a 
tribute of twenty-two thousand dollars was paid annually 
to the Dey of Tripoli. 



230 AMERICAN HISTORY 

When the time came to renew the commercial treaties 
with the Barbary states, the Pasha of Tripoli was granted 
eighty-three thousand dollars from the United States, 
but he insisted that he was not receiving as much as the 
other states and he declared war upon the United States. 
Jefferson sent a fleet to the Mediterranean, which, in a short 
time, brought the Tripolitans to understand that the Ameri- 
cans were not to be insulted. 

After a few victories, the United States secured a treaty 
whereby American commerce would be safe and no further 
presents or tribute money would be paid. 

This event gave the American navy just fame in Europe. 
It was not long before all of the Christian nations were 
benefited by the success of the United States. 

Louisiana Purchase, 1803. — The most important event 
of Jefferson's administration was the purchase of Louisiana. 
At the close of the French and Indian War, France gave to 
Spain the great territory drained by the Mississippi and 
its western branches. For nearly forty years the interior 
of the vast district was practically unexplored, as Spain 
spent most of her energy in developing New Orleans and 
the lower valley. 

As early as Washington's administration, the western 
frontier settlements complained of the interference of Spain 
with their use of the Mississippi. We remember well how 
Washington finally succeeded in getting the treaty of 
Madrid, which secured larger commercial privileges to the 
Americans. But there was already a feeling of unrest 
over the navigation of the river, and, as it was a convenient 
waterway into the poorly defended frontier of the United 
States, it had often attracted Jefferson's attention. 

At the opening of his administration he was alarmed to 
learn that Louisiana had been ceded to France. While 
Jefferson had a friendly regard for France, yet he knew 
that this nation was much stronger than Spain, and he 






- 


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CO 


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X 


o £ * a 


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- 


J Jo 



JEFFERSONIA X D E MOC R AC Y 



231 



realized that, with Xapoleon and his armies at the head 
of France, this new ownership might prove a menace to 




The T 



the peace and safety of the United States. Jefferson grew 
justly alarmed when he heard that Xapoleon was planning 
to land troops at New Orleans and to use this city as a 



232 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



military base in order to attack the English in Canada. 
In a message to Congress, the President declared that : 
" There is on the globe one single spot, the possessor of which 
is our natural and habitual enemy. It is New Orleans." 

He then proposed the purchase of the Isle of Orleans. 
Robert Livingston, United States minister to France, was 
urged to secure the purchase, but there were many diffi- 
culties in the way. Finally Jefferson sent James Monroe 




The Cabildo, New Orleans, built in 1794- 

as special agent in this interest. They at last secured a 
consideration of their plans, when suddenly Napoleon, 
who greatly needed money, decided to sell the entire terri- 
tory. He asked $12,500,000 for the land and requested 
$2,500,000 as payment for French claims in the late war 
with the United States. The amount was paid and the 
American government added the magnificent valley to its 
domain in 1803. This addition has been of inestimable 
worth to the country. Through its great natural resources, 
it has paid for itself many-fold. 



JEFFERSONIAN DEMOCRACY 



233 



Lewis and Clark Expedition. — In the next year after 
the purchase, an expedition was sent under the command 
of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, younger brother 
of George Rogers Clark. They followed the course of the 
Missouri as far north and west as the Rocky Mountains, 
suffering as many hardships and braving as great dangers as 






fb *Spa)n^ H $. JU J ft 

II ^ 



f x t miri 




+++ Bouie of Clark's \ 

..-..■Route of Lewis's party 
_ ^ Route of entire party 




The Routes of the Lewis and Clark Expedition. 



the early explorers. After crossing the Rocky Mountains, 
they came to the Columbia River, by which they were 
brought on November 7, 1805, in view of the Pacific Ocean. 
This expedition was of great value, as it defined the ex- 
tent of the territory and added a better claim to the district 
of Oregon. Later Zebulon Pike also led an expedition 
through this region and came over toward Colorado, where 



234 AMERICAN HISTORY 

he discovered Pikes Peak and explored the Arkansas and 
Rio Grande rivers. 

Burr's Plot. — In 1804 Aaron Burr ran for the governor- 
ship of New York and was defeated. He accused Alexander 
Hamilton of causing his defeat and challenged Hamilton to a 
duel in which the latter was killed. The whole country was 
greatly shocked by this tragedy, as Hamilton was admired 
by many and considered one of the greatest men of his age. 

Burr was absolutely disgraced by the act and was obliged 
to leave the state. He went to the West, where it is sup- 
posed that there he planned to take advantage of certain 
discontent among some of the people of Louisiana and the 
frontier settlements, and by skillfully working up this un- 
rest bring it to the point of causing these states to secede 
from the Union. Then, with the aid of some of the officials 
of Mexico, it is thought, he meant to unite all of these dis- 
tricts into a new republic with himself and his colleagues 
as the head. He was arrested and brought to trial, but no 
definite information could be brought against him, and he 
was released. 

Foreign Affairs. — In 1804 Jefferson was elected for a 
second term. During this time many problems arose in 
regard to foreign affairs. The wars in Europe had stimu- 
lated American trade. There was a growing demand for 
our American products. Many fast sailing vessels were 
built to carry on this commerce. The English govern- 
ment was using all of its available men either in the army 
or navy. At this time it was reported that a number had 
deserted and were employed upon American ships. The 
English shipping companies also complained that their 
crews deserted in American ports and that this was the 
cause of long delays in getting their vessels home. 

The English government attempted to remedy these 
conditions by granting its sea captains commissions which 
gave them the right to search vessels for their seamen. 



JEFFERSONIAN DEMOCRACY 235 

The result was that many American boats were stopped to 
be searched for English sailors. In some instances the 
deserters were found, but on the other hand able-bodied 
American seamen were declared to be British subjects and 
forced upon English vessels. 

Chesapeake Affair. — In 1807 the crisis in this insolence 
was reached when the American frigate Chesapeake was 
stopped on the high seas by the British vessel Leopard. 
The captain of the Chesapeake refused to have his vessel 
searched ; and, though the Chesapeake was not prepared 
for resistance, the British then fired upon the American boat, 
killed three seamen, and wounded eighteen. Four Ameri- 
can seamen were seized. The Chesapeake, in deep disgrace, 
returned to harbor. When the incident was reported the 
whole of America was aroused to a high pitch of indignation. 
Many felt that we ought to declare war. 

The Embargo. — Just prior to this incident, the British 
had declared the whole coast of Europe from the Elbe 
River to Brest, a distance of eight hundred miles, under 
blockade. All along the coast many American ships were 
welcome, as they were bearers of food and supplies. But 
under the Orders in Council, as the English decrees were 
called, no ship could trade in any of these ports unless it 
was furnished a license by England. 

On the other hand, France, under Napoleon, in retalia- 
tion passed the Berlin and Milan decrees, by which all of 
the ports of Great Britain and Ireland were also under 
blockade. As time went on similar decrees were passed 
first by England, then by France, until there were scarcely 
any ports open to commerce. 

The American ships were at the mercy of both England 
and France and conditions were very serious. President 
Jefferson appealed to England to redress the grievances 
done to the Chesapeake and to recognize the American 
ships as those belonging to a neutral country, but England 



236 AMERICAN HISTORY 

refused to heed the request. Then Jefferson proposed to 
Congress a new policy ; namely, that, as all of the belliger- 
ent nations needed American supplies, it would be well 
to close all of our ports to the world. By keeping our 
ships at home, Europe would soon be brought to recognize 
the need for our products and would treat with us ; thus 
we could secure better trade relations. This policy of 
domestic blockade was known as the Embargo. We 
shall see how unpopular it became. 

Non-intercourse Act. — The Americans were sure that 
Europe would be dependent upon our food supplies, so 
all over the country great crops of grain and other products 
were raised and warehouses were filled to overflowing. But 
Europe secured its supplies from other ports, and the 
American products became old and unfit for use. The 
ships in the harbors were tied up, many persons were de- 
prived of employment, and hard times settled down upon 
the country. From city and country alike came the cry 
of discontent. Jefferson's policy was condemned and 
his administration grew very unpopular. So great was 
the opposition to the Embargo that Congress was obliged 
to repeal it. As a substitute Congress passed what is 
known as the Non-intercourse Act. This provided for 
open ports for all nations except England and France and 
gave the American ships the right to free trade. 

While Congress had been enacting these laws, Jefferson's 
administration drew to a close and James Madison of 
Virginia was elected President. 

Jefferson's Retirement. — Jefferson now retired at Mon- 
ticello, with the shadow of unpopularity about the last acts 
of his administration. But as we look back we realize 
that many of his plans were great and successful, and that 
the purpose of his work was to establish a nation upon a 
high plane of democracy and to point the way for many 
splendid national interests that we have been glad to follow. 



JEFFERSONIAN DEMOCRACY 237 

Topical Outline 



Jeffersonian Democracy. 

I. Inauguration of Jefferson. 
II. War with Tripoli. 

III. Louisiana Purchase, 1803. 

IV. Lewis and Clark Expedition. 
V. Burr's Plot. 

VI. Foreign Affairs. 

1. Chesapeake Affair. 

2. Embargo. 

3. Non-Intercourse Act. 
VII. Jefferson's Retirement. 



Review Questions 

1. Give an estimate of the character of Thomas Jefferson. Note 
his political views. 

2. Locate Tripoli. Why did we go to war with Tripoli ? 

3. Write an account of the purchase of Louisiana. 

4. Who explored this region ? Was this a dangerous undertaking ? 
Why? 

5. What was the value of this purchase to the United States? 

6. Who was Aaron Burr? What were his plans ? 

7. Define the terms : Blockade, Embargo. 

8. Why was an embargo laid on American trade? 

9. Why was this policy not a success ? 
10. What took its place ? 

References 

Roosevelt : Winning of the West. 
Hosmer : Louisiana Purchase. 



CHAPTER XIV 
WAR OF 1812 

Trials of the New President. — When James Madison, 
of Virginia, succeeded Thomas Jefferson as President, he 
was immediately beset with the trying foreign affairs that 
had given so much concern in the last few years of the 

history of the country. 
The European blockade 
continued as an annoy- 
ance to the Americans, 
and the Embargo, which 
was so great a failure, 
was followed by the Non- 
intercourse Act, which 
gave little, if any, relief 
to the shipping interests. 
Although the Americans 
were eager for trade and 
were willing to build 
boats and promote the 
commerce of the country, 
yet the trade restrictions 

were a serious hindrance 
James Madison. and & cauge Qf graye dJs _ 

content, especially among the seacoast towns of New Eng- 
land, where many men had been thrown out of work by the 
Embargo. The Federalist Party was largely represented in 
this district, and there was a strong feeling against Jefferson 
and the Anti-Federalists for this act, so that Madison had 
to use great policy to hold the feeling in check. 

238 




WAR OF 1812 239 

The Admission of Louisiana (1812). — Another incident 
that increased the differences of opinions of the Federalists 
and Anti-Federalists was the application of the territory 
of Orleans for admission into the Union. After the pur- 
chase of Louisiana territory, a number of Americans moved 
into this district and became permanent residents. In 
181 1 there were 75,000 inhabitants in the district of Or- 
leans, a territory which extended from the Gulf of Mexico 
to the boundary of the present state of Arkansas. 

When these people asked for admission into the Union, 
a bitter opposition arose in Congress on the ground that 
many of the inhabitants were of French and Spanish ances- 
try and that they were too alien to enter into the plans and 
methods of the United States government. The discus- 
sions became more and more heated. 

In the course of the debates in Congress, one of the leaders 
of the Federalist Party, Senator Josiah Quincy, of Massa- 
chusetts, declared : "If this bill passes, the bonds of the 
Union are virtually dissolved ; the States that compose it 
are free from their moral obligations, and as it will be the 
right of all, so it will be the duty of some, definitely to 
prepare for a separation, amicably if they can, violently 
if they must." 

Notwithstanding this extreme language, a bill was passed 
by Congress and a convention was called in New Orleans 
to frame a state constitution. In the next year, April 8, 
181 2, an act was passed admitting the territory of Orleans 
under the title of the state of Louisiana. We shall shortly 
see how the French and Spanish Americans were to show 
their truly national patriotism by their gallant aid in the 
impending war. 

War Party in Congress. — The new President, a gentle, 
peace-loving man, used every effort to avert the war, 
but there were some new leaders in Congress who felt 
that the American seamen deserved better protection. 



240 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Among these younger Congressmen were Henry Clay, 
of Kentucky, John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, Daniel 
Webster, of Massachusetts, and Felix Grundy, of Tennessee. 
In the year 1811 these younger Congressmen were roused 
to greater energy in behalf of their cause by two very criti- 
cal events. 

The President and the Little Belt. — The first was an 
encounter between the American frigate, President, and 
an English war vessel, called Little Belt. In this engage- 
ment the American ship was victorious. Thus in a measure 
the insult to the Chesapeake was redressed. The incident, 
hailed with great joy, caused hundreds of Americans to feel 
that our seamen were ready for many such victories, even 
if the navy was small and poorly equipped. The event 
was a decided means of stimulating the feeling for war. 

Indian Outbreaks. — In the summer of this year, In- 
dian outrages were committed in the Northwest. It was 
rumored that the English were instigating the Indians in 
their warfare on the frontier settlements. 

Tecumseh, chief of the Shawnees, was the leader of the 
Indians. He and his twin brother, " The Prophet," real- 
ized that the Americans were on the verge of a war with 
England and that this would be a good time to organize 
all of the western tribes from the lakes to the gulf in one 
large confederation to make a stand for control of the 
western country. Tecumseh failed to secure the co- 
operation of the Creeks in Georgia ; but, gathering forces 
near the northern frontier, he opened an attack. William 
Henry Harrison, governor of this territory, marched 
against an Indian town on the Tippecanoe River and 
utterly defeated Tecumseh's forces. 

Later Tecumseh went to Canada and joined the British 
army. The western leaders in Congress urged protection 
of the frontiers from these attacks and started the war 
cry " America for Americans " and " On to Canada," 



WAR OF 1812 241 

while the slogan " Free Trade and Seamen's Rights " 
was shouted from one end of the country to the other. 
So strong was the sentiment in favor of war, and so in- 
solent was the English ministry toward our representatives 
in England, that President Madison was obliged to send 
his war message to Congress on June 12, 181 2. 

By the end of the month war was formally declared and 
preparations were begun. Notwithstanding the zeal of 
the war party, there were many Americans who were not 
in favor of the movement. They believed that we should 
injure our reviving commerce with Europe and the West 
Indies and that we were not prepared for the struggle. 
Our navy was small and poorly equipped, our army was 
inexperienced, the coast protection was very inadequate, 
and our finances were not in the best condition. When 
hasty preparations were made, however, the war was begun 
in earnest. 

Land Campaigns. — The Americans were on the ag- 
gressive and planned to attack the border forts and towns 
on the Canadian side and then march into Canada, but, 
in this plan, they had the disadvantage of position. There 
were no good roads through the country to the Canadian 
frontier, nor were there any navigable rivers that could 
be used for transporting an army and supplies, while, on 
the other hand, the principal Canadian cities and forts 
were along the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes. For 
this reason supplies and soldiers could be transported easily. 
Moreover, the western Indians were allies of the English 
and could give ample assistance in the frontier attacks. 
Another weakness in the American position was the north- 
eastern frontier, which had always led in the attacks on 
Canada in the early colonial struggles, and which at this 
time was not in sympathy with the war and not en- 
thusiastic in furnishing either men or means to carry out 
the plan. 



242 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Hull's Surrender. — In 1812 the Americans began the 
attack by planning to invade Canada by way of the Michi- 
gan frontier. General Hull was in charge of the Ameri- 
cans at Detroit. When the British appeared before this 
fort, Hull surrendered without firing a shot. A number 
of men were captured and forced to give up their arms. 
This was a most disappointing episode. Hull was charged 
with cowardice and was about to be court-martialed when 
his excellent services in the American Revolution were re- 
membered. Instead, he was only deprived of his command. 




Harrison * n • TTilkhy s 



The Canadian Frontier. 



It looked very much as if the Americans were about to 
lose the northwest frontier instead of gaining Canada. 

Perry's Victory on Lake Erie. — In September, 181 3, 
Lieutenant Oliver Perry gained a brilliant victory over a 
British fleet in Lake Erie and prevented these vessels from 
transporting soldiers to reenforce the Detroit district. 
This victory was hailed with intense delight. Perry's 
famous message, " We have met the enemy, and they are 
ours," was carried all over the country. 

This victory aided General Harrison, who was trying to 



WAR OF 1812 



243 



recover the ground that Hull had lost. In a short while 
Harrison succeeded in winning a signal victory over Gen- 
eral Proctor and his Indian allies, under Tecumseh, on the 
banks of the Thames River, near Detroit. In this battle 
Tecumseh was killed and General Proctor was obliged to 
flee for his life. This 
engagement gave the 
Americans a larger dis- 
trict than Hull had 
lost. 

Invasion of Canada. 
— Another attempt 
was made to invade 
Canada. At this time 
the Niagara frontier 
was the place of attack. 
New generals had been 
sent to take up the 
leadership of the Amer- 
icans. Under their 
direction, York (To- 
ronto) was taken and 
some smaller positions 
secured. The success of the Americans suggested the 
capture of Montreal, but this expedition was a failure. 
In the next season the position held by the Americans 
was abandoned. 

Battle of Lake Champlain. — In the following year, 1814, 
a large British force started from Canada to invade New 
York. But as they were being transported down Lake 
Champlain they were attacked by Commodore Mac- 
Donough, who was guarding the Lake. MacDonough 
won as brilliant a victory as Perry had on Lake Erie, and 
by his success he prevented the British from entering 
New York. 




Captain Oliver Hazard Perry. 



244 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



British Aggressive Campaign. — In 1814 England was 
in a position to send a fleet to America to aid the Canadians 
in their plans. With this new aid, the British succeeded in 
taking some towns on the coast of Maine. A large force 
was sent to the Chesapeake Bay region. After a slight 
attack upon Bladensburg, Maryland, the English went on 

to Washington and seized 
the undefended city. The 
Capitol, White House, 
and some of the impor- 
tant Federal buildings 
were burned. Just be- 
fore the English entered 
Washington, the Presi- 
dent's wife, Mrs. Dolly 
Madison, had the fore- 
thought to gather up some 
of the most valuable state 
papers, like the Declara- 
tion of Independence, and 
carry them to a place of 
safety. 

The British fleet at- 
tempted to storm Balti- 
more, but failed. Then 
the besiegers embarked 
upon their ships for the South, where a very elaborate cam- 
paign was planned. The incident is told that while the 
British fleet bombarded Fort McHenry all night, during this 
eventful evening Francis Scott Key, an American prisoner 
on one of the English ships, was inspired to write The 
Star-Spangled Banner. 

Battle of New Orleans. — The next plan of the British 
was to capture New Orleans and use this city as a military 
base for further control of the Mississippi River. President 




Mrs. James Madison. 



WAR OF 1812 



2 45 




New Orleans and Vicinity, 



Madison ordered General Andrew Jackson of Tennessee to 
defend the city. Jackson came to New Orleans, bringing 
with him a number of Kentucky and Tennessee riflemen. 
The English had kept their plans a secret, but in their 
endeavor to enter the city by way of one of the numerous 
water routes they had attempted to bribe some Baratarian 
smugglers ; these smugglers gave 
the plan over to the Americans. 

Jackson organized his forces, 
using every available citizen in 
the section. He then proceeded 
to guard all the possible routes, 
but the British came in by way 
of Lake Borgne and landed their 
forces on the Villere plantation. 
They then arranged their troops 
on the field of Chalmette, a few 
miles below the city. Here they prepared to make an 
attack. In the first engagement, which took place on the 
23d of December, the British were repulsed. 

On Christmas Day, General Pakenham, brother-in-law 
of the Duke of Wellington, arrived and took charge of the 
army. He brought with him the flower of the English 
ranks as his reinforcements. 

On the 8th of January the memorable battle took 
place. In this engagement Jackson had his men arranged 
behind a breastwork in front of Bayou Bienvenu, a small 
stream south of New Orleans, while the English advanced 
from an open field. The heavy cannonade began from the 
American side and disastrously cut down the " red coats," 
as the English were called. 

They lost two thousand of their men, among whom lay 
their commander, General Pakenham. The Americans 
had but eight killed and fourteen wounded. This battle 
was one of the most serious disasters that the English 



246 AMERICAN HISTORY 

had encountered. After it was over and the news had 
been forwarded to Washington, it was discovered that the 
engagement took place after the treaty of peace had 
been signed on the 24th of December in the city of 
Ghent, Belgium. The reason for the delay in receiving 
the news was due to the fact that communication was 




From de Lami's painting in La Slate Museum. 

Battle of New Orleans, Jan. 8, 181 5. 

very indirect in these days and it took weeks to send news 
from Europe to America. 

Naval Engagements of the War. — The Americans were 
eminently successful on the sea. Although their navy was 
many times smaller than the splendid array of British 
ships, the single-handed duels between the American and 
English ships were often victories for the Americans. Of 
sixteen such engagements, the Americans won twelve 
victories. 

Among these was the defeat and capture of the Guerriere 
by the Constitution. The former had been one of the most 
active of the British ships in sailing up and down the Amer- 
ican coast impressing seamen. Its capture was reck- 



WAR OF 1812 247 

oned as a splendid feat on the part of Captain Hull, com- 
mander of the Constitution. This was only one of several 
victories that this commander and his gallant ship won. 
It was through these engagements that the Constitution 
received its nickname, " Old Ironsides." 

Besides these encounters, the American privateers entered 
every harbor where English merchant ships could be found 
and captured hundreds of these. It was remarkable how 
many prizes these swift little sailing vessels managed to 
secure. 

Hartford Convention. — While the war was going on, 
the peace party did not cease to condemn the war policy 
of the Democrats. Both Massachusetts and Connecticut 
had refused to call out their local militias to assist ; and all 
through the Northeast there had been very few subscribers 
to the war fund. When a Federalist governor was elected 
in Vermont, he recalled the local defense from guarding 
Lake Champlain. So conditions went on until 18 14, when 
a special meeting of the New England Federalists was held in 
Hartford, Connecticut, to make further declarations against 
the war party. The sessions of this meeting were secret, 
but it was generally rumored that a plan was on foot to 
organize the district and secede from the Union. As 
there were negotiations for peace going on at this very 
time, nothing came of the meeting. 

When the treaty of peace was signed, there was no refer- 
ence made to the causes of the war. England, however, took 
her garrisons from the Northwest. American seamen had 
so ably defended themselves that future impressments 
were unlikely. Thus American commerce was assured. 

General Effects of the War of i8i2.--The war cost 
the American people upward of thirty thousand lives and 
brought many families into deep distress without giving 
to the country any increase in territory or any lasting 
glory except in the matter of the splendid success of the 



248 AMERICAN HISTORY 

American gunners on the sea. The national debt was in- 
creased by the actual cost of the war, which is estimated at 
upward of two hundred million dollars. 

But the war did have the effect of making the American 
people more independent in their views regarding national 
interests. There was a tendency toward setting aside 
English and French standards of thought and the accept- 
ance of more American ideals and ideas on all questions 
of the day. 

Many of the plans and suggestions that had been made 
by Hamilton and his Federalist followers and that had 
been scorned by the new Democrat-Republican Party of 
Jefferson's day were now carefully considered and adopted. 
On the other hand, certain phases of Democracy that had 
seemed too extreme to be easily accepted, were now recog- 
nized in a new light and deemed to be a part of the American 
system. America had grown up in these years of experience 
and was now in a position to think for itself. Its ideas 
were the merging of Nationalism and Democracy. 



Topical Outline 

War of 1812. 

I. Trials of New President. 
II. Admission of Louisiana. 

III. War Party in Congress. 

IV. President and Little Belt. 
V. Indian Outbreaks. 

VI. War Declared. 
VII. Land Campaigns. 

1. Canadian Frontier. 

2. Atlantic Coast. 

3. Battle of New Orleans. 
VIII. Naval Engagements. 

IX. Hartford Convention. 
X. Treaty of Peace. 
XL Effects of War of 181 2. 



WAR OF 1812 249 

Review Questions 

1. Who succeeded Thomas Jefferson as President? What trials 
faced the new President ? 

2. What were the conditions in the territory of Orleans when 
the inhabitants of that territory asked for admission to the Union ? 

3. How was their request received by Congress? 

4. When was Louisiana admitted to the Union ? 

5. What was meant by the War party in Congress? 

6. How did the Americans regard the victory of the President 
over the Little Belt ? 

7. Give an account of the Indian troubles in the Northwest. 

8. Under what circumstances did the United States declare war 
against England in 181 2? 

9. Who had the advantage of position in this war? 

10. Were the Americans successful in their plans to invade Canada ? 

11. Give an account of Perry's victory on Lake Erie? 

12. Give an account of the British aggressive campaign. 

13. Describe the battle of New Orleans. 

14. Tell something of the naval engagements of the war. 

15. State the general effects of the war of 181 2. 

16. What was the Hartford Convention? 

References 

Mahan : War of 181 2. 

Roosevelt : Naval War of 181 2. 

Eggleston and Seeley : Tecumseh and the Shawnee Prophet. 



CHAPTER XV 



ERA OF GOOD FEELING 



Monroe's Administration. — After the War of 1812, with 
the readjustment of affairs there came over the country a 
quiet and prosperous period that is frequently spoken of 
as the " era of good feeling." It began with the admin- 
istration of President 
James Monroe and ex- 
tended through the ad- 
ministration of John 
Quincy Adams. 

The recently inaugu- 
rated President, James 
Monroe, was from Vir- 
ginia and represented 
an earnest, conservative 
type of man who was not 
influenced by deep party 

prejudices nor swayed by 
James Monroe. ^ and unusual plans 

As we have noted, there was greater political harmony than 
had existed in the country for many years. Monroe aided 
this condition by following up as closely as possible the 
interests of all sections of the country, and, further, by 
visiting many of the states of the Union. He was 
cordially received everywhere. His kindly interest in 
the plans and movements of the American people secured 

250 




ERA OF GOOD FEELING 251 

such confidence in his administration that he received 
an almost unanimous election at his second term for 
President. 

The American Tariff System. — This system was among 
the important events of this period. In 1789 Con- 
gress passed a tariff act to assist in securing revenues for 
the country. This law was somewhat protective in its 
plan, but it was not designed to assist American manu- 
factures. 

The Embargo and Non-intercourse acts had prevented 
importation of European goods and stimulated the growth 
of manufactures. During the War of 181 2, there had 
been an increase in the production of homemade goods. 
At the close of the war it was decided by the American 
manufacturers that an association should be formed for 
the purpose of securing a tariff that would be high enough 
to protect American-made goods. At this time European 
cities were filled with unemployed men and factory wages 
became very low, so that the foreign manufacturers could 
turn out goods at a much cheaper rate than the Americans 
whose labor was limited and whose machinery and tools 
had to be imported. 

It was declared that if something were not done to assist 
the " infant industries," as they were called, the American 
factories would have to close and that America would be 
the open market for foreign goods. It was also stated that 
in case of war, or blockade, this situation would prove 
serious, for we were entirely without adequate factories. 
One statesman declared that we had won our political 
independence in the American Revolution, our commercial 
independence by the War of 181 2, and that the time 
had now come when we must win our industrial in- 
dependence. 

So great was the interest in this question of protection 
that Congress passed an act in 18 16 which provided for a 



252 AMERICAN HISTORY 

law that would guarantee protection of certain American- 
made articles. The act provided for three classes of goods, 
which could be supplied by American manufacturers in 
sufficient quantities for home use. 

United States Bank. — At the same time that the tariff 
system was revised, a bill was introduced into Congress 
recommending the reestablishment of the United States 
Bank. Jefferson and his party had opposed the former 
national bank on the ground that the Constitution did not 
provide for such an institution. Moreover it was deemed 
undemocratic of the government to use the National Bank 
and its branches as the sole depositories of national funds. 
If the funds were placed in state banks, the national money 
could have wider circulation and the entire nation would 
have greater benefit by the State Bank system. 

This system went into effect in 1811. Within the next 
five years the state banks increased threefold and the cir- 
culation of bank notes increased from $45,000,000 to 
$100,000,000. This rapid increase in paper money over- 
topped the gold and silver specie reserve. As the bank 
notes increased, their purchasing value decreased. By 
1 8 14 all of the state banks outside of Massachusetts sus- 
pended the payment of gold and silver. The bank bill 
provided that the payment of government taxes could be 
made in these bank notes. When business firms required 
payment in specie, the public began to lose confidence in 
the bank notes. 

The situation grew so serious that a general demand was 
made for better financial security and a petition was sent 
to Congress asking for the establishment of a second 
national bank. The new bank was chartered in 181 6. 
In the next year the central bank was organized in Phila- 
delphia and branch banks were located in twenty-five 
of the principal American cities. The President of the 
United States had the power to appoint five of the twenty- 



ERA OF GOOD FEELING 



2 53 



five directors, and the affairs of the bank were under the 
direct inspection of Congress. 

Purchase of Florida. — During the War of 1812 Spain 
had allowed England to build forts in Florida and to use 
this region as a military base. This had caused the Amer- 
icans to feel alarmed lest the Florida district might become 
a menace to the peace and safety of the southern states. 
Moreover, the Indians in Georgia and northern Florida 
had made a number of attacks upon the American frontiers. 
It was supposed that the Spaniards had aided in this 
movement. 

At any rate, General Andrew Jackson, who was sent 
down to the Georgia district to suppress the Indian out- 
rages, was convinced 
that the Spaniards 
were secretly helping 
the Indians, so, after 
defeating the latter at 
Tohopeka, Alabama 
(18 1 4), Jackson drove 
the remainder of the 
Indians southward to 
Florida. Later he 
entered this district, 
and, after repulsing 
an English garrison at Mobile, he continued to Pensacola, 
which was occupied by British forces, seized this position, 
and hanged two Englishmen and two Indian chiefs. Spain, 
indignant at Jackson's invasion of her territory, asked the 
United States for a redress of these grievances. 

A little later the district of West Florida, bounded by the 
Mississippi River on the west and the Perdido River on 
the east, revolted and declared itself independent of Spanish 
authority. 

When the Louisiana Purchase was made in 1803, the 




Florida Boundary in 1818. 



254 AMERICAN HISTORY 

United States declared the district of West Florida to be a 
portion of the Purchase, but Spain denied this right and 
retained control of the province. This territory was 
largely occupied by Americans who, having received grants 
from the Spanish government, were operating plantations 
and stock farms. They used Baton Rouge and New Or- 
leans as their chief ports, although such towns as Mobile, 
Biloxi, and Pass Christian on the Gulf of Mexico were the 
seaports for the eastern portion of the province. 

The Spanish governors usually resided at Baton Rouge, 
but they, were often indifferent to the interests of the 
people and were frequently absent from the colony, spend- 
ing months at a time in Pensacola or Havana on pleasure 
trips. This indifference aroused the indignation of the 
American settlers. In 1810 some Americans under the 
leadership of General Philemon Thomas seized the fort 
at Baton Rouge and took control. This is known as the 
West Florida Revolution. 

Later a convention of the leading American citizens 
was held and declared the independence of the district 
under the title of the West Florida Republic. They asked 
the United States to acknowledge their independence. 
President Monroe instructed Governor Claiborne of Louisi- 
ana territory to take charge of the situation. The Spanish 
government resented the attitude of the Americans, and 
these incidents, added to the preceding events of Jackson's 
expedition, caused the United States to consider the claims 
of Spain. In 181 9 the United States reached an agree- 
ment with Spain whereby Florida was purchased for five 
million dollars. The United States was secured in her 
control of the Gulf coast and free from the constant menace 
of foreign invasions at this place. 

By this same treaty the United States secured a release 
of Spain's claim in the Oregon territory and also accepted 
Spains proposal that the Sabine River be fixed as the 



ERA OF GOOD FEELING 



255 



eastern boundary of Texas. In this year Alabama was 
admitted to the Union. Missouri also asked to be ad- 
mitted, but was delayed because of the question of slavery 
until a compromise could be made. 

Missouri Compromise. — In order to study the Missouri 
Compromise, it will be necessary to give a brief outline of 
the history of the institution of slavery in the United 
States and also the re- 
lation of this period of 
history to later events. 

In the sixteenth cen- 
tury the Spanish govern- 
ment gave permission to 
their colonists in the West 
Indies and South Amer- 
ica to use negro slaves 
on the plantations, and 
wherever they were 
needed. Thus was be- 
gun the first use of Afri- 
can slaves in America. 
There was such a demand 
for field hands and the 
negroes proved so useful 
that it was not long be- 
fore many of the European countries became interested 
in the slave trade. 

White Labor Preferred in the South. — Among the most 
active traders in this industry were the Dutch. As early 
as 1 619 a cargo of negroes was brought to Virginia by a 
Dutch trading vessel and sold to the Virginia planters. 
There was a great demand for laborers in Virginia at this 
time, since the planters were anxious to secure field hands 
for their tobacco plantations, so the negroes were wel- 
comed. But the Virginians preferred white labor and 




Territory Affected by the 
MISSOURI COMPROMISE 

A Added to Missouri (183G) 



Missouri Compromise. 



256 AMERICAN HISTORY 

from time to time made every effort to secure such from 
England. A number of poor white persons being anxious 
to come to the New World, were willing to serve several 
years for their passage to America. These, known as 
redemptioners or indented servants, were eagerly wel- 
comed to the English colonies. England also sent over 
some prisoners who served their sentence in America under 
this system and in the course of time became freemen 
with rights of citizens. 

English Slave Trade. — Every now and then, however, 
cargoes of negroes were introduced into the colonies until 
the institution of slavery became a regular system of labor 
in America. But the preference for laborers was given 
to white emigrants. It was not until Queen Anne's time 
that the trade in negroes was rapidly increased. This 
was brought about in 17 13 by the Assiento or treaty made 
with Spain, one of the agreements of which gave England 
the monopoly of the African slave trade. From this time 
forward a new impetus was given to the importation 
of negroes. A number of slave-trading companies were 
started in England and received charters from the crown, 
Indented servants were no longer sent over. Within a 
few years the institution of slavery was firmly foisted 
upon the English colonies. 

The Natural Location of Slavery. — In 1776 slavery was 
in existence in all of the American colonies. But the 
majority of these laborers were in the South, where plan- 
tations prevailed and where the warmer climate was more 
suitable for the out-of-door life to which the negroes were 
accustomed. In the towns and cities of the North and 
East, where most of the occupations of the people were 
manufactures, shipbuilding, and mercantile interests, the 
untrained negroes were not as profitable as in the South, 
where agriculture prevailed and the seasons for farming 
were long ; hence there was less demand for slave labor in 



ERA OF GOOD FEELING 257 

the northern states, and the institution gradually began 
to die out. 

Tendency toward Abolition. — The first state to prohibit 
the institution was Pennsylvania, where the Quaker popu- 
lation had long tried to secure its abolition. In 1787 a 
law prohibiting the importation of foreign slaves into the 
United States was discussed. Afterwards a compromise 
was adopted and went into effect in 1808. After this many 
of the New England states which had been interested in 
the slave trade abolished the institution altogether. In 
1787 an ordinance was passed by Congress prohibiting 
slavery in Northwest territory. So, little by little, here 
and there, the tendency toward abolition grew. 

The Effect of the Cotton Gin. — When Eli Whitney in- 
vented the cotton gin in 1793 a new interest in slavery was 
developed, because by this invention, which easily separated 
the lint from the seed, cotton raising became very profitable. 
The new lands of the South which were adapted to the 
culture of cotton were quickly taken up and many planta- 
tions were opened. Negroes were very much in demand in 
these new lands. There was a constant shifting of the 
institution from the North toward the farm lands of the 
southern states. By 181 5 the majority of the negroes 
in the United States were south of Pennsylvania. 

Slavery in Missouri. — Missouri was a part of the Loui- 
siana Purchase. In its early history, when it was under 
the domination of the French and Spanish governments, 
slavery existed within its borders. During the great 
migration toward the west after the War of 181 2, many 
southern people moved into Missouri and carried their 
slaves with them. When Missouri asked to be admitted 
as a slaveholding state, the question arose in Congress 
as to this privilege. 

The Compromise. — Members of Congress from free 
states wished to have Missouri come in as a free state, but 



258 AMERICAN HISTORY 

those from the slaveholding states urged their support of 
the Missouri constitution. After serious debate a com- 
promise was finally accepted which allowed Missouri to 
come in as a slaveholding state, but prohibited slavery in 
any of the territory purchased from France north of the 
southern boundary of this state. This compromise on the 
question of slavery literally divided the United States 
geographically into two sections. From that time forward 
the question of a state's privilege to extend the institu- 
tion of slavery was destined to become a grave national 
issue. 

The Monroe Doctrine, 1823. — After the downfall of 
Napoleon, there was formed in Europe an alliance of many 
of the great nations for the purpose of assisting one another 
should a revolution break out within their borders. France 
had assisted Spain to reestablish the monarchy in that 
country. As Spain had recently lost many of her Amer- 
ican possessions through revolts, the Holy Alliance, as it 
was called, offered to assist Spain in the recovery of her 
possessions. Both England and the United States had 
acknowledged the independence of the new republics and 
formed commercial treaties with them that seemed mutually 
profitable. Moreover, Russia, who was a member of the 
HoJy Alliance, had pushed her seal-fishing interests from 
Alaska as far south as the Spanish town of San Francisco 
in California and had declared that the Pacific Ocean from 
Siberia to America north of Oregon was not open to navi- 
gation. If the Holy Alliance should assist Spain in the 
recovery of her colonies, it was possible that Spain might 
reward the countries in the Alliance with certain possessions. 
This act would transfer the European policies to America 
and perhaps cause grave trouble. 

On December 23, 1823, President Monroe in a message 
to Congress stated certain policies in regard to foreign 
countries. These policies were adopted by Congress and 



ERA OF GOOD FEELING 259 

are known as the Monroe Doctrine. Its chief points are 
as follow 

First, that these American continents by the free and independent 

position which they have assumed and maintained are not subject, 
for future colonization. 

Second, that where a Republican form of government has been 
assumed and maintained that it shall not be interfered with, nor a 
monarchical form of government set up in its stead. 

Third, that the policy of the United States has been, and shall be, 
not to interfere with European policies, and that in return the United 
States expects European nations to respect American policies and 
furthermore, any attempt on the part of European nations to extend 
their systems will be deemed unfriendly to the United States. 

The nations accepted this declaration of President 
Monroe. Russia removed her interest from San Francisco. 
No attempt was made to overthrow the South American 
republics. This Doctrine has become known as one of the 
greatest policies of the United States. It has been re- 
asserted from time to time with signal effect. 



Topical Outline 

Era of Good Feeling. 
I. Inauguration of President Monroe. 
II. American Tariff System. 

III. United States Bank. 

IV. Purchase of Florida. 
Y. Missouri Compromise. 

VI. Monroe Doctrine. 

Review Questions 

1. What was meant by the "Era of good feelin. 

2. Who was President at this time ? Tell something of his political 
ideas. 

3. What had been the tariff system up to this time, and what 
changes were made in it during this administration ? 



260 AMERICAN HISTORY 

4. What had been the banking system up to this time and what 
changes, if any, were made during this administration ? 

5. What was the West Florida Revolution? 

6. Under what circumstances was Florida purchased ? 

7. Give a brief account of the early history of slave labor in the 
United States. 

8. How did England force the American colonists to use slave 
labor ? 

9. Were there any efforts toward the abolition of slavery in the 
United States in early times ? 

10. How did the invention of the cotton gin increase the need for 
laborers in the South ? 

11. What controversy arose in Congress over the question of the 
admission of Missouri into the Union ? 

12. Discuss the adoption of the Missouri Compromise. 

13. Why was the Monroe Doctrine announced? 

14. What are the principal features of this policy? 

References 

Curtis : United States and Foreign Powers. 
Woodrow Wilson : Division and Revision. 
Dewey : Financial History of United States. 



CHAPTER XVI 

ERA OF INDUSTRIAL CHANGE 

Improvements. — The period between 1816 and 1840 
was marked by many improvements that affected the 
national life of the American people and caused a rapid 




The Cumberland Road. 

development of the middle West. We shall take up the 
principal ones and note their influence. 

Good Roads. — As early as 1806 the United States 
government undertook to construct a well-graded wagon 
road from Cumberland on the Potomac River to Wheeling 
on the Ohio. This road was about eighty feet wide, paved 

261 



262 AMERICAN HISTORY 

with stone and covered with gravel. It was one of the 
means of encouraging emigration to the West, as settlers 
from the East could safely journey over this road to the 
Ohio River and from there go down this stream to places 
that afforded good sites for farms. In this way many 
travelers followed the Cumberland Road, as it was called, 
until it became the means of opening up a regular trade 
route between the East and West. 

In 1820 Henry Clay succeeded in getting Congress to 
extend this road across the states of Ohio, Indiana, and 
Illinois. Thus a complete connection was made between 
the Wheeling division and the Mississippi River opposite 
St. Louis. The road was now known as the " National 
Turnpike." It became the means of promoting still greater 
emigration. Many nourishing cities were built along its 
way. 

States also took up the work of road building. Good 
highways were laid from one place to another, connecting 
with the main road. Easy transportation lessened the 
time of journeys and rendered communication possible. 

Canals. — In England and other European countries 
the problem of conveying goods from the interior of the 
country to the sea was partially solved by means of canals 
connecting with rivers and making a chain of waterways 
to the sea. This idea was adopted in America. Con- 
gress was asked to make appropriations for the purpose. 
The United States government refused to undertake the 
work and so it was left to individual states to carry out the 
plan. 

Erie Canal. — New York was the first state to see the 
possibilities of a canal system. Under the able direction of 
Governor Clinton a canal from Buffalo on Lake Erie to 
Albany on the Hudson was planned in 181 7. At first it 
seemed a tremendous and expensive undertaking ; many 
people thought the plan almost absurd ; but the work was 



ERA OF INDUSTRIAL CHANGE 



263 



carried out. A canal, three hundred and sixty-three 
miles in length and deep enough to float barges and tow- 
boats, was constructed across the entire state of New York. 
It was called the Erie Canal and was completed in 1825. 

Effect of Opening the Erie Canal. — Through this means 
the Great Lakes were connected with the Atlantic Ocean. 
Traffic was so increased that within ten years the tolls had 
paid for the entire cost of construction. Freight rates 




On the Erie Canal, 1825. 



were so lowered that it took but one third the time to trans- 
port goods. In 1 81 9 the first steamer was put on Lake 
Erie. After the completion of the Canal numbers of boats 
were built for this trade. The wonderful interest in the 
Northwest caused the tide of emigration to go by way of 
the canal route. As a number of factory towns and busy 
cities were built along its course, this district grew into 
vast importance. New York City became the great inlet 
for European goods and as valuable an outlet for western 
demands. It was only a short time until this city became 
the largest in the United States. With the rise of Chicago 
at the other end of the Great Lakes, the value of this new 
waterway system was recognized. 

Railroads. — The era of canal building was hardly well 
advanced when a new method of transportation was begun. 



264 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



The idea of laying rails and hauling cars over these by 
means of mules was first conceived in the year 182 1. This 
was not of much value, but experiments went on until 1829, 
when the first steam locomotive was brought to this country 
from England. This was not a success, as the track was too 
light to support the weight of the engine. In the next 
year a locomotive was built in the United States for the 




A Passenger Car 1830, Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. 



Baltimore and Ohio Company that set the example for 
many more. This engine was the " Tom Thumb," built 
by Peter Cooper. It made a run of thirteen miles from 
Baltimore to Ellicott's Mills in one hour. 

The next twenty years witnessed the construction of 
many railroads over difficult places where ordinary wagon 
roads had not been adequate. 

The first railroad completed in America extended from 
Charleston, South Carolina, to Hamburg, Georgia, a distance 



ERA OF INDUSTRIAL CHANGE 265 

of one hundred and thirty-four miles. At this time, 1831, 
this was the longest railroad in the world. Its engine, 
called the " Best Friend," could carry a train of five loaded 
cars from sixteen to twenty-five miles in an hour. 

Within a short while after this, the Mobile and Ohio 
road was completed. Its engine made what was called 
the very great speed of fifteen miles an hour. 

In 1832 another railroad was constructed in the Mohawk 
Valley, New York. The distance of seventeen miles from 
Albany to Schenectady was made in an hour. 

Most of the railroads were built with the aid of state 
money. But later companies were formed which took up 
this work, and from time to time states would grant land 
in the form of " rights of way " that assisted the companies 
in their investments in railroad equipment. After twenty 
years had passed many of these roads were consolidated. 
With their branch roads and extensions the whole country 
east of the Mississippi was covered with a network of 
lines. Just as the improvement in wagon roads and the 
construction of canals had the effect of improving the 
country, so the railroads served the same purpose, but 
with even a greater influence than the former. 

Steamships. — With the application of steam power to 
inland navigation and to railroads came the plan of apply- 
ing the same power to ocean-going ships. This was done 
in 181 9, when a steamer, the Savannah, made the trip from 
Savannah, Georgia, to Liverpool, England, in twenty-six 
days. In 1840 a regular line of steamers was established 
between Liverpool and Boston. This marked the era of 
more rapid transit across the ocean. Larger and more 
extensive systems were started until nearly every seaport 
had its steamship line plying between its harbor and Europe. 
Passage became cheaper and foreign immigration increased. 

Foreign Immigration. — Most of these foreigners sought 
the North and West, where free labor did not come in com- 



266 AMERICAN HISTORY 

petition with slave labor. It was not very long before the 
old-fashioned Anglo-American city became a place of many 
peoples with many languages and ideas. A number of 
these people, being factory hands and skilled artisans, 
soon became an important factor in promoting the American 
manufactures. New and improved machinery was placed 
in factories, and towns grew up about certain industries. 




The First Steamboat to cross the Ocean. 

City life with its community activities was more common 
in the North and West than in the South, where the plan- 
tation system still prevailed and where it was impossible 
to secure town meetings or promote interests that are 
found where people live in neighborhood groups. 

Differences between the North and South. — With all 
these changes came marked differences between the North 
and the South. The factory towns with foreign popu- 
lation and free labor had interests that were unlike those 
of the South, where agriculture still occupied the greatest 
attention of the population, and where state and not town 
formed the unit of political interest. All over the South 
most of the population was of long standing. Here the feel- 
ing for the state was very personal. In many of the northern 



ERA OF INDUSTRIAL CHANGE 



267 



states the population was strongly local in its ideas and 
plans. The foreigner was not wedded to old ideas of 
loyalty to the state. His coming was to America or the 
United States, not to a certain city or a special state, but 
his interest from the beginning was in the country as a 
whole and, secondly, in the community that sheltered him. 
It was such conditions as these that helped to develop 
strong nationalism on one side and strong state rights' 
feelings on the other. 

DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICAN LITERATURE 

Influence of the War on Literature. — In the early 
colonial times the literature of England was the literature 
of America. Then our 
interests were all similar 
in matters of social and 
religious character, and 
many of our political 
ideas were the same. 
The American people 
at that time were busy 
with home-making, and 
the new country with 
its dangers and hard- 
ships, its absorbing new- 
ness, and the difficulty 
of securing printing 
presses delayed the 
making of books, es- 
pecially as the demand 
for reading was so easily 
and readily supplied by 

/ rr J \\ ASHINGTON IRVING. 

the mother country. 

But, with the stirring events of the American Revolution 

and the strong, national feeling developed during the War 




268 AMERICAN HISTORY 

of 1812, there was bound to cornea forward movement for 
American literature. 

Typical Prose Writers. — Among the most noteworthy 
names of typical American writers of this period are two 
prose writers, Washington Irving and James Fenimore 
Cooper. Irving first attracted attention by his quaint 
History of New York and later delighted the reading 
public with the Sketch Book. These and other of his 
works were received in England with as much praise as in 
America. In Irving's Life of. Columbus and The Life of 
Washington we find the beginnings of our American his- 
tories. Cooper confined most of his many writings to tales 
of daring frontier life and thrilling experiences on the sea. 
He was the first author to reveal the fascinating interests 
of the American wild woods. To this day the charm of 
narration is still enjoyed by those reading the Leather- 
stocking Tales. 

Poets. — Several poets of national reputation lived at 
this time and contributed many beautiful poems to Amer- 
ican literature. Among these was William Cullen Bryant, 
who at the age of seventeen composed a poem called 
Thanatopsis, which is renowned for its beauty and deep 
thought. Bryant's poems, Lines to a Waterfowl and The 
Fringed Gentian, brought him within the rank of the leading 
poets of England. Whittier and Longfellow both began 
writing at this time, but their most important works belong 
to a little later period. 

A Novelist. — Nathaniel Hawthorne, one of the greatest 
novelists that America has produced, published some of 
his works during these years. 

National Songs. — This was also an era of spirited 
national songs such as Hail Columbia, Star-spangled 
Banner, and America. 

History and Biography. — And it was also the time 
when some of the most valuable of the great state papers 



ERA OF INDUSTRIAL CHANGE 



269 



of the country were printed. Bancroft began his extensive 
history of the United States now. Interesting biographies 
of the heroes of the Revolution and famous statesmen of 
the early part of the century were being read by the general 
public. 

Newspapers and Periodicals. — Every city had its news- 
papers and many standard magazines were published, in 
which appeared excellent 
essays by such men as 
Emerson, Oliver Wendell 
Holmes, and James 
Russell Lowell. 

Art. — America was 
coming forward also in 
the world of art. Among 
the most noted painters 
of this time was Gilbert 
Stuart, whose portraits of 
Washington and other 
statesmen have made him 
world famous. Peel and 
Copley were also well 
known in portrait work. 

Trumbull and Benjamin West excelled in narrative 
painting. Trumbull's pictures of the signing of the Dec- 
laration of Independence and of other historical subjects 
adorn the walls of the United States Capitol and are in- 
teresting in their details. West devoted himself to Biblical 
and classical subjects, and the immense canvases that he 
painted are still objects of interest in some of our leading 
museums of art. 

Culture was fast coming into all of the homes of the 
American people ; and good taste and comfort were care- 
fully considered. 




Gilbert Stuart. 



270 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Topical Outline 

Era of Industrial Change. 
I. Improvements. 

1. Good Roads. 

2. Canals. 

3. Railroads. 

4. Steamships. 
II. Population. 

1. Foreign Immigration. 

2. Difference between the North and South. 
III. Development of American Literature. 

1. Influence of the American Revolution on Literature. 

2. Typical Prose Writers. 

3. Poets. 

4. National Songs. 

5. History and Biography. 

6. Newspapers and Periodicals. 
IV. Art. 

Review Questions 

1. Why is the period between 1800 and 1840 one of important 
national development ? 

2. What progress was made during this period in building good 
roads ? 

3. In what countries were canals successfully operated ? Why did 
the people of this country favor canals? Under what governmental 
direction were they dug ? 

4. Tell the story of early railroad building in the United States. 

5. What was the first steamship to make a trip across the Atlantic 
Ocean? What were some of the advantages of this kind of trans- 
portation? 

6. What effect did foreign immigration have upon the develop- 
ment of the United States ? 

7. How did the Revolution help to develop American literature? 

8. Mention some of the principal prose writers of this period. 

9. WT10 were some of the leading poets of this time ? 

10. Can you name some of the national songs written during this era ? 

11. Who were some of the leading artists at this time? 

References 
Coman : Industrial History of United States. 
Judson : Growth of the American People. 
Wright : Industrial Evolution of the United States. 



CHAPTER XVII 



NATIONAL REPUBLICANS AND JACKSONIAN 
DEMOCRATS 

Candidates for Presidency in 1824. — In the presidential 
election of 1824 there were four candidates. John Quincy 
Adams represented the New England district ; William H. 
Crawford of Georgia was 
the South's candidate ; 
Henry Clay of Kentucky 
was from the West ; and 
Andrew Jackson, the hero 
of the battle of New 
Orleans, was supported 
by the Southwest. Both 
Adams and Clay held 
mainly to the principles 
of the old disorganized 
Federalist Party ; and 
Crawford and Jackson 
adhered to some of the 
principles of the old Anti- 
Federalist (Democrat-Re- 
publican) Party. Jackson 
was destined to lead his 
party along more ad- 
vanced lines of democracy than the country knew. In 
time this era was to be known as the period of Jacksonian 
democracy. 

Election of Adams. — As none of the candidates received 
a majority of the votes cast, the election for a second time 

271 




John Quincy Adams. 



272 AMERICAN HISTORY 

was decided by the House of Representatives. Both Clay 
and Adams had many friends in the House, and these 
combined and elected Adams. As soon as the President 
was elected, he named Clay as the Secretary of State. 
Adams and Clay were both accused by their opponents of 
making a bargain in order to promote this arrangement. 
It was not long before the country was again divided 
politically into two parties, known as the Whigs and the 
Democrats. 

Tariff and Bank Issues. — The Whig Party which sup- 
ported Adams and Clay was the outgrowth of the National 
Republican Party. Its members were in favor of a high 
protective tariff, the United States Bank, and public im- 
provements. The plan of Adams was to carry forth these 
projects and enlarge the benefits of all sections of the 
country. At the same time there was a strong feeling 
among many of the southern states in favor of low tariff, 
and the distribution of money in state banks instead of 
placing it in the keeping of the United States Bank and 
its branches. The West was particularly in favor of state 
banks, as most of the national banks were located in the 
coast towns, and the West received scarcely any benefits 
from the circulation of the government funds. It was 
firmly believed by many thoughtful men that the high 
tariff was a menace to the prosperity of the country and 
that it was the cause of the " high cost of living " and of 
immediate benefit to the manufacturing districts of the 
country. Newspapers and journals took up these ques- 
tions and discussed them at length until it was not long 
before preparations for another presidential election were 
launched. 

Jackson's Political Campaign. — At this time the country 
witnessed a regular political campaign in favor of Andrew 
Jackson. He was called " Old Hickory." Wherever polit- 
ical gatherings and receptions were held, hickory poles 



REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 



273 



were raised and enthusiastic speeches made for Jackson, 
low tariff, and state banks. Perhaps the most imposing re- 
ception given to Jackson was that tendered by the people of 
Louisiana on the anniversary of the battle of New Orleans, 
on January 8, 1828. The General Assembly of the state 
sent him a formal invitation to take part in the ceremonies, 
which he accepted. He made the trip from Tennessee to 
New Orleans by boat, with the 
entire voyage one of con- 
stant ovations and brilliant 
enthusiasm. At Natchez, 
Mississippi, a magnificent 
ball was given. This was 
typical of all the towns where 
stops were made. Many 
boats joined the river fleet. 
By the time New Orleans 
was reached the harbor was 
full of gayly decorated crafts 
packed with cheering multi- 
tudes. Many veterans who 
had served with Jackson were 
present at the ceremonies ; 
committees from various 
states were sent to assist in 
the welcome ; and visitors 
from far and near crowded to the celebration. The fes- 
tivities, continuing for four days, represented the most 
elaborate that the city had ever given. 

Adams was candidate for reelection, but he refused to 
do any " electioneering," as it was called. Jackson was 
elected, receiving twice as many electoral votes as Adams. 

Administration of Jackson. — The new President repre- 
sented the ideas of the Democratic Party. He planned 
to carry into effect the principles for which his party had 




Andrew Jackson. 



174 AMERICAN HISTORY 

worked, and for which he was elected. He was simple and 
direct in his manners and tarried not for the strict formali- 
ties of the occasion. He believed that every man who had 
helped to elect him was his friend, and he made no class 
distinctions. When he was inaugurated, hundreds of these 
friends came to the capital to witness the event. They 
thronged the streets, attended the reception, and cheered 
lustily for the man that was to bring into effect Democratic 
reform. Jackson, thoroughly appreciative of their good 
will, set to work to carry out their hopes. 

The Spoils System. — It had been the custom to keep 
in office old and tried officials who were well acquainted 
with the routine of administrative work. Many of such 
employees of the government had held offices since the days 
of Washington and Jefferson. But Jackson recognized 
that he was surrounded by many men who had supported 
Adams. He hesitated not at all to dismiss them and put 
into office his friends and adherents. This custom became 
known as the " Spoils System." Jackson was evidently 
sincere in not only surrounding himself with his friends, 
but in putting into office men who would be in sympathy 
with his ideas and plans. 

Its Bad Results. — But the scheme was not wise, for there 
came into existence a system of politics whereby many 
persons made regular campaigns to help candidates for 
office in order to receive in return a position under the 
newly elected chief. In this way incompetent people 
were placed in charge of interests that they could hardly 
handle. As time went on the " Spoils System " became so 
menacing that reform was inevitable. For years both 
the Republican and Democratic parties made efforts to 
change the system. Finally the Pendleton Civil Service 
reform bill went into effect during President Arthur's 
administration. 

Jackson's Popularity. — Many of Jackson's plans were 



REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 



275 



not popular with the older leaders in Congress. Such 
men as Clay, Calhoun, and Webster were often not in 
accord with his views. But the American people were 
with the President. To them he seemed the savior of 
their interests, and the opponent of the great National 
Republican Party that represented more and more the 
ideas of the old Federalist Party. 

Tariff Issue. — In 1828 a new tariff bill was introduced 
that raised the duties on foreign goods above those that had 
existed previously. This 
measure was strongly 
supported by the eastern 
manufacturers, and op- 
posed by the southern 
planters. South Caro- 
lina's representatives in 
Congress, notably John 
C. Calhoun, made every 
effort to secure a reduc- 
tion of the tariff. Then it 
was hoped that Jackson 
would use his influence 
to this end, but the 
President and Calhoun 
did not agree and the 
personal feelings of both 
seemed to limit the far- 
reaching policies that 
were before the nation. 




John C. Calhoun. 



Calhoun made the most masterly 
speeches in defense of low tariff. He was answered by 
Webster and Clay in defense of protection. 

Nullification. — When the bill finally became a law, South 
Carolina made a definite statement of her position on this 
great question in what has since become known as the 
South Carolina Exposition. This declared that each 



276 AMERICAN HISTORY 

state should have the right, or power, to nullify such legis- 
lation as it considers injurious to itself. This was also 
called the doctrine of Nullification. 

States' Rights. — The stand taken by South Carolina 
on the right of a state to defend itself from the exercise of 
arbitrary legislation by the national government was not 
original with this state. It was a principle that had been 
asserted even as early as colonial times when the New Eng- 
land Confederacy was formed and an attempt was made by 
certain colonies to declare war against the Dutch and In- 
dians who were molesting the settlers of Connecticut. 
Massachusetts refused to agree to this and declared that 
" under the articles of Confederation the general courts were 
at liberty to act in every case according to their consciences." 

When the Constitution of the United States was adopted, 
there was a strong feeling on the part of the several states 
to accept the new government and to promote its develop- 
ment. At the same time each state was also carrying out 
its own local government. The deepest interest was then 
felt in the promotion of state constitutions. The American 
citizens were alert to consider and weigh the powers of the 
existing government in interpreting the law lest it infringe 
upon the state's sovereign rights. This made the task of 
administration very difficult. A man with less tact and 
less calm judgment than Washington could have scarcely 
succeeded in welding the states into a permanent union at 
this time. 

During Adams's administration the trial of powers of 
Congress was put to the test, when under the advice of the 
President, the Alien and Sedition Laws were passed. We 
have noted the general opposition to these acts, but the 
most serious phase of this opposition was the Kentucky and 
Virginia resolutions which definitely stated " that when- 
ever the general government assumes undelegated powers, 
its acts are unauthoritative, void and of no force. . . ." 



REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 277 

This asserted right of the nullification of national laws 
became a menace to the perpetuity of the Union, for there 
might be opposite views of the powers of Congress at any 
time, and the assertion of a state's right to refuse the national 
law would lead to disunion of interests. On the other hand, 
these forceful declarations checked the tendency on the part 
of Congress to overstep its authority. By discussions of 
both sides of the issue, public opinion was formed in favor 
of a more acceptable interpretation of the Constitution. 

As time went on we have other illustrations of this 
assertion of states' right, notably the attitude of the New 
England states in regard to the Congressional policy in 
conducting the War of 181 2. This opposition to the war 
resulted in the refusal of the governor of Vermont to pro- 
tect Lake Champlain and in the meeting of delegates from 
the several New England states in Hartford, Connecticut, 
for the purpose of making a definite protest against the 
war policy and suggesting a separation of interests should 
the war continue. These radical measures, however, never 
ceased to move the country deeply, for many persons 
realized the weakness that would befall the nation should 
there be a separation of the states. For this reason South 
Carolina's Exposition became the issue of the day. Thus 
Calhoun's theory that the principles of the Constitution 
were not such as to dominate the interests of a state at the 
sacrifice of the state became the subject of debate in Con- 
gress. Calhoun upheld the idea of states' rights. Webster 
defended the power of the Constitution. 

In 1832, Congress passed a new tariff bill, but this did 
not seem to give the needed relief, and a state convention 
met in South Carolina in November, 1832, and passed an 
ordinance declaring the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 null 
and void in South Carolina. All state officers were required 
to take an oath to support the ordinance. 

Although Jackson was in sympathy with the South in 



278 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



its plans for a reduction of the tariff, yet the action of South 
Carolina moved him deeply. He declared that nullifica- 
tion must not go into effect and that the " Union must and 
shall be preserved." 

Tariff for Revenue Only. — In 1833, Henry Clay, " the 
Great Pacificator " as he was called, came forward with 
another compromise. This proposed that the tariff should 

be reduced gradually 
until by the end of ten 
years it would be a 
tariff for revenue only. 
South Carolina accepted 
this and harmony was 
restored. 

The Force Bill. — At 
this time Congress passed 
another act called the 
Force Bill. This gave 
the President the au- 
thority to use force in 
order to preserve the 
Union if it was necessary. 
The Bank Issue. — 
The next important 
question that occupied 
Jackson's administration was the United States Banking 
System. As we have noted, the national funds were de- 
posited in the United States Bank, which at this time had 
twenty-five branches. These were located in the principal 
seacoast towns where customs were collected. These banks 
gave to the communities in which they were located a steady 
circulation of funds and were the means of promoting 
business enterprise. Many of the western towns felt the 
lack of these banks and desired a more general distribution 
of the government funds. 




Henry Clay. 



REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 279 

Every now and then agitation was started in favor of 
state banks, but the United States Bank had the confidence 
of many of the American people and a favorable standing 
in foreign countries. It was now well organized, having 
many stockholders and a large number of employees. 
Upon the whole, it was one of the most powerful institutions 
in the country. As is the custom now, three forms of money 
were in current use : first, gold and silver coins ; second, 
bank bills, or certificates; third, drafts and checks. This 
last form was fast becoming the usual method in the business 
world, so that the general public was using it much more. 
The United States Bank did a great deal of this business 
and controlled all of the government's finances. 

Jackson had openly declared that it was a great monopoly 
in which a few persons were reaping the largest benefits 
while the general public and the government were scarcely 
sharers in its interests. He announced that he would not 
renew the bank's charter, but would favor depositing the 
national funds in state banks and thus give a wider cir- 
culation of money in more communities. Jackson was 
also convinced that the bank had opposed his election. 
After he became President he requested the appointment 
of certain men to bank positions. The President of the 
bank, Nicholas Biddle, declared that the affairs of the bank 
were to be conducted without regard to politics. This 
remark did not help matters, for many American people 
were of the opinion of the President that the bank was a 
tremendous political power and that its influence was such 
that it could sway the finances of the country to suit its 
own purposes. 

The National Republican, or Whig, Party held a con- 
vention in Baltimore in 1831, nominated Henry Clay for 
President, adopted a platform indorsing the National 
Bank and Public Improvements, and opposed the " Spoils 
System," as Jackson's political appointments were called. 



280 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Thus the bank issue became one of the leading features of 
the political campaign. 

Although there was still much respect for the National 
Bank, yet the Democratic policy of Jackson became more 
and more popular; and he was reelected. In 1832 a bill 
was introduced into Congress granting a renewal of the 
charter of the bank in 1836. The bill passed both houses, 
but Jackson vetoed it. Thus the state banks came into 
existence. 

Removal of the Deposits. — The old charter of the bank 
provided that the Secretary of the Treasury had the right 
to deposit the revenues of the government with other banks 
at his discretion. Congress had to know of these deposits, 
and the clause had been put into the charter so as to allow 
the government to deposit funds in state banks where the 
United States Bank had no branches. Jackson used this 
part of the charter as the means for withholding the gov- 
ernment funds from the bank until the charter should ex- 
pire. Instead of withdrawing funds, he secured a treasurer 
who was willing to make the deposits in state banks that 
had no connection with the national bank. 

Thus, before the charter expired, the United States Bank 
began to feel the lack of support of the government's funds 
and it suffered greatly. It was obliged to call in its large 
loans, an action which almost plunged the business of the 
United States into serious straits before the financial affairs 
could be properly adjusted. The money that was withheld 
was placed in private state banks called " Pet Banks " 
because of Jackson's preference for them. Congress felt 
so indignant over the President's action in removing the 
funds that the Senate publicly censured him. Later on 
when Jackson's friends were a majority in the Senate they 
had the condemnation erased from the records. 

Distribution of the Surplus. — In 1835 the last payment 
on the public debt was made and the government was in 



REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 281 

an excellent financial condition. Not only did the revenues 
from the tariff, internal taxes, and sale of public land, give 
ample funds to run the needs of the government, but 
there was an annual surplus of about thirty-five millions. 
The question now arose as to the disposal of this surplus. 
Congressman Benton of Missouri urged that this money 
should be devoted to internal improvements. But Jackson 
did not believe that Congress had the power to handle the 
money in this way. Calhoun suggested that the money 
be distributed among the several states in proportion to 
their population. This latter plan prevailed; and three 
different amounts were paid ; but before a fourth payment 
could be made, the country faced a great financial crisis 
in which the government shared the failure of lack of 
funds. 

Panic of 1837. — This crisis in money affairs was caused 
by a series of circumstances. The first of these was the 
wild speculation of the times. This speculation was 
stimulated by the splendid prosperity of the country. 
Money was in free circulation. The banks were now ready 
to lend on even meager security. Paper money was issued 
by the state banks in every community. The price of all 
government lands was low. The splendid crops of the 
western farms gave an impetus to the purchase of new 
lands, and it was a time of rapid buying and selling of these 
lands. Many persons mortgaged their eastern property to 
banks and went west to secure favorable holdings. In 
almost every instance the loans were made in paper money, 
which was paid into the land offices until in a little while 
there was a vast amount of this paper money held by the 
government. 

Specie Circular. — Taxes were also paid in this currency, 
hence it was not long before the national government began 
to fear the security of the paper money. There was an 
unusual amount of general business carried on in this same 



282 AMERICAN HISTORY 

way. The entire country seemed much more prosperous 
than ever before. At last President Jackson deemed it ad- 
visable to limit the payment of paper money for government 
debts. Senator T. H. Benton drafted the Specie Circular. 
This act provided that the United States government would 
not receive anything but specie, that is, gold or silver coin, 
in payment for public lands, taxes, debts, etc. This caused 
a profound disturbance, for if the government did not wish 
to be paid in the usual bank paper money, then the general 
public did not wish to accept this currency. 

Paper Money Depreciates. — So great was the feeling, 
that paper money began to depreciate in value, many 
depositors demanded coin from their banks, and mer- 
chants refused to accept the bank bills. There was not 
enough gold and silver in the country to meet the sudden 
demand. Banks all over the United States began to 
fail. Persons who had borrowed money were utterly ruined. 
Business houses also felt the effects ; factories were closed ; 
projects, like canal and railroad building, were stopped ; 
and thousands of persons were thrown out of employment. 

Effects of the Panic. — In every walk of life the distress- 
ing effects of the panic were felt. It was deemed the great- 
est financial trouble that had befallen the United States. 
During the winter following the panic, untold hardships 
fell upon the poor and unemployed, and the price of food 
went up ; flour rose to eleven dollars a barrel and corn to 
a dollar and fifteen cents per bushel. In some of the 
larger cities "bread riots" occurred, and the public urged 
the government to lend aid, but the government's finances 
were also in a bad condition and no assistance could be 
given. The Specie Circular was issued at the close of 
Jackson's administration. His successor, Martin Van 
Buren, entered upon his presidential career with the crash 
of this widespread financial disorder in every state in the 
Union. 



REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 



283 



Van Buren's Administration. — President Van Buren 
was from New York, where he had long taken part in the 
state's politics. He was a close friend of Jackson's and 
had supported the latter in his successive elections. Van 
Buren had served as Vice President during Jackson's last 
administration and was thoroughly a Democrat in all 
his ideas and policies. 
When he came to office, 
he was immediately occu- 
pied with the financial dis- 
asters of the time. Thus 
as conditions grew from 
bad to worse, he was held 
responsible for the hard 
times on the ground of 
supporting the Specie Cir- 
cular and of suggesting 
a plan for protecting 
the government's finances 
which did not meet the 
approval of the public. 

Subtreasury System. — 
The President held fast to 
the idea that the money of 
the United States should 
be kept separate from banking institutions, and he advo- 
cated what was known as the United States Subtreasury 
system. Under this plan the money of the United States 
was to be kept in strong vaults or places of deposit, and 
all financial affairs run on a specie basis. The President 
and his colleagues were sharply criticized for this plan, as 
it kept a large amount of money out of circulation while 
the hard times were demanding some relief. The Inde- 
pendent Treasury bill failed to go into effect until 1840 ; and 
although it was lightly regarded, it later developed into a 




Martin Van Buren. 



284 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



plan that the United States government has considered 
safe enough to continue. 

The New Campaign. — The Whig Party was convinced 
that the Democratic policies of State Banks and the 
Distribution of the Surplus were the causes of the panic, 
and that Jackson and Van Buren were responsible for the 
hard times in the country. This sentiment began to grow. 
In 1839 a Whig convention met in Ohio and nominated 
General William Henry Harrison for the Presidency. 

General Harrison. — General Harrison, like Jackson, 
was one of the great heroes of the War of 181 2. And, like 

Jackson, he had won dis- 
tinction as an Indian 
fighter. Harrison's ad- 
ministration as governor 
of Northwest territory 
had been so successful 
that his friends and 
neighbors had confidence 
in his executive ability. 
He was a plain, unaf- 
fected man whose whole 
life had been spent in the 
West, and whom the sim- 
ple life of the new coun- 
try had given a broad 
view of the resources and 
opportunities of the United States. The campaign in his 
favor was one of the most enthusiastic that the nation had 
known. Stories of his log-cabin home, his victories over 
Proctor and Tecumseh, were told and retold with ardor. 

Symbols of the Whig Party. — When a Democratic 
paper sneeringly declared that Harrison was the type of 
man who could be easily satisfied with a barrel of cider 
and a log cabin, the Harrison adherents took up the re- 




William Henry Harrison. 



REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 



285 



mark and promptly made these the symbols of the Whig 
Party, and the campaign became known as the " cider and 
log cabin " era. Miniature log cabins were hauled about 
on wagons, meeting houses were built in this style, women 
pieced quilts from a log-cabin design, and the country felt 
that the common people were to be benefited by the new 
movement. 

Van Buren was often very bitterly assailed. As the can- 
didate on the Democratic ticket he was described as the 




One of the Symbols of the Whig Party. 



" wealthy aristocrat " who always held rich political posi- 
tions and who lived in a palace and drank French wines. 
It was an exciting time with lively meetings, stirring songs, 
and hearty enthusiasm. 

Harrison's Death. — In the early part of the campaign 
no discussion was opened on the subject of the bank ques- 
tion, for it seemed that Harrison himself was the main 
issue. Upon his election, however, the Whigs now con- 
fidently believed that their principles would be carried out, 
but they were doomed to be disappointed, for within a 
month after Harrison had been inaugurated he was taken 
ill and died. 



286 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



John Tyler. — He was succeeded by John Tyler, a 
Democrat of the old type, who had split from the Jack- 
sonian Party, but who held the old Jeffersonian idea of tariff 
for revenue only, opposition to the United States Bank, 
and other principles that were not in accord with the 
Whig Party. 

Tyler's Policies. — When Tyler was placed on the ticket 
with Harrison, he was selected because of his power with 

the Democrats who did 
not favor Jackson or Van 
Buren and who were not 
willing to go over to 
the Whig Party entirely. 
Harrison was the great 
thought before the Amer- 
ican people, and no one 
considered the probabil- 
ity of a Tyler adminis- 
tration; thus a strange 
political situation arose 
that had to be met and 
rearranged. Clay and 
Webster, with a number 
of other leading Whigs, 
John Tyler. dominated both houses ; 

and, with the election of Harrison, they proceeded to put 
forward certain Whig measures, such as the revival of the 
National Bank charter and the national control of public 
improvements. A revision of the tariff was also to be 
an issue. 

Tyler, proving himself to be a true Democrat, promptly 
vetoed the Whig measures, thereby causing great disappoint- 
ment to the party and making many enemies in both houses. 
He quarreled with the members of his Cabinet so that all 
resigned with the exception of Webster, who remained in 




REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 287 

order to settle some important international matters be- 
tween the United States and England. 

Character of Tyler's Administration. — The whole ad- 
ministration was one of great unrest and caused the country 
to suffer many perplexities through the political disagree- 
ments. Tyler gathered about him a few chosen friends of 
the Democratic Party, who advised him on many questions, 
but, with conditions so unsatisfactory, the issues became 
only more vexed. There were a number of open asser- 
tions of individual rights which seemed to show the spirit 
of the times. Among these was an uprising in Rhode 
Island known as Doris Rebellion. 

Dorr's Rebellion. — In Rhode Island there was an early 
.colonial law that limited the right of voting to the property 
holders. By this many men were debarred from taking 
part in the political interests of the state. A number of 
public meetings were held. The law was openly denounced. 
But nothing was done to revise the state constitution. 
Finally a man named Dorr led an insurrection of the 
people against the authorities, and the United States 
troops were called out to suppress the uprising. Dorr was 
arrested and tried for treason, but was acquitted. A little 
later the people secured a new constitution which granted 
more liberal suffrage privileges. Peace and order were in 
this way restored. 

Anti-rent Riots. — Another uprising was among the ten- 
ants on the old colonial estates along the Hudson. These 
estates were in the form of the original grants given to the 
Patroons by the Dutch in the seventeenth century. Here 
the descendants of the old families still held the land and 
demanded rent in the form of a share system. The tenants 
wished to purchase the land, and made every effort to 
secure this right, but failed. They then refused to pay rent. 
Officers were sent to collect the rents, but the " Anti-rent " 
leaders refused to pay, and the trouble continued for several 



288 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



years. Finally it was decided to allow the tenants to pur- 
chase the land. Thus the difficulty was adjusted. 

Webster-Ashburton Treaty. — One of the most impor- 
tant international events of this administration was the 
settlement of the boundary between Maine and Canada. 
The old treaty of 1763 had defined the boundary in a 
general way. This had been accepted by the English and 




A Mormon Temple. 

Americans at the close of the American Revolution, but it 
was not a well-defined boundary, and after months of care- 
ful consideration of the subject, the present boundary was 
fixed in 1842. The treaty also provided for the extradition 
of fugitive criminals from one country to the other. 

The Mormons. — During this period an interesting 
migration to the West was made by a band of people called 
the Mormons. These people had accepted a new religion 
founded by Joseph Smith. In 1827 Smith declared that he 
had received a vision from an angel telling him of certain 
plates containing divine revelation. Smith translated 



REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 289 

these writings, which proved to be a version of the Bible 
with another book called The Prophecy of Mormon included 
within the text. Large numbers of people accepted the 
teachings of Smith and formed a new church under the 
title of congregations of Latter Day Saints. The first of 
these societies was formed in Palmyra, New York, but the 
members were not looked upon favorably by the commu- 
nity and were at last obliged to move from the state. 
They then migrated to Illinois, where they were again 
attacked. Here Joseph Smith and his brother Hiram were 
killed. 

Under the leadership of a new prophet, Brigham Young, 
the Mormons made their way into the far West until 
after great hardship they reached the basin of Great Salt 
Lake, where they built a city called Zion, which has since 
been commonly called Salt Lake City. Here the Latter 
Day Saints began a new and undisturbed life. They 
prospered and built other towns, and in the course of time 
gained large holdings of land in the West. They established 
a government under the direction of the church and adopted 
among their customs the practice of polygamy. 

The Mormons were not in harmony with the ideas of 
the American people. For many years they remained 
entirely without the interest and cooperation of the na- 
tional government. They became renowned for their 
energy and thrift and showed fine judgment and superior 
taste in the development of their cities. When the terri- 
tory of Utah finally asked for admission into the Union, the 
United States government forced the abolition of polyg- 
amy and required a state constitution providing for a 
government independent of church authority and in accord- 
ance with the national Constitution. 



29O AMERICAN HISTORY 



Topical Outline 

National Republican and Jacksonian Democrats. 

I. Candidates for Presidency in 1814. 

II. Election of Adams. 

III. The Tariff. 

IV. Jackson's Political Campaign. 
V. Administration of Jackson. 

VI. Spoils System. 

VII. Tariff Issue — Nullification — States' Rights. 

VIII. Compromise, 1833. 

IX. Jackson and the United States Bank. 

X. Removal of Deposits. 

XI. Distribution of Surplus. 

XII. Specie Circular. 

XIII. Panic of 1837. 

XIV. Van Buren's Administration. 
XV. Subtreasury System. 

XVI. The Harrison Campaign. — Symbols of Whig Party. 

XVII. Death of Harrison. 

XVIII. Tyler becomes President. 

XIX. Tyler's Policies. 

XX. Dorr's RebeUion. 

XXI. Anti-Rent Riots. 

XXII. Webster- Ashburton Treaty. 

XXIII. Mormons. 



Review Questions 

1. Who were the candidates for the presidency in 1824? How 
was the President elected ? 

2. What issues were taken up at this time ? 

3. Describe Jackson's political campaign. 

4. Tell something of the character of Andrew Jackson. 

5. What is the " spoils system " ? What were the political con- 
ditions under which it developed ? 

6. What were the bad results of this system? 

7. Give an account of the tariff controversy of 1832. How was it 
settled? 

8. What was meant by the Doctrine of Nullification? 



REPUBLICANS AND DEMOCRATS 291 

9. Give a brief outline of the assertion of States' Rights theory. 

10. What was Jackson's position on the tariff question? 

11. What was meant by the Force Bill? 

12. What was Jackson's attitude toward the national bank? 

13. (a) Why was the specie circular issued ? 

(b) State the result. 

(c) What is meant by the Independent Treasury System ? 

14. Give an account of the election of President Harrison. 

15. Wlio succeeded Harrison? What were the policies of this 
President ? 

16. What were Dorr's Rebellion and the Anti-rent riots? 

17. Tell something of the Webster-Ashburton Treaty? 

18. Who were the Mormons? 



References 

Stanwood : American Tariff Controversies. 
Peck : The Jacksonian Epoch. 
Shepard : Martin Van Buren. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 

Population. — During this era (1840-1860) the tide of 
immigration increased and the population of the northern 
and eastern cities was materially affected by this influx 
of foreigners. The terrible famines in Ireland caused great 
numbers of people from this unfortunate country to come 
to America, and the crowded conditions of European cities 
also prompted a large migration to the United States. For 
the main part the newcomers settled in the North, where 
free labor alone was employed, and where there was a 
diversity of trades. 

Manufactures were now increasing. The demand for 
skilled mechanics assured work for many of the trained fac- 
tory hands from the Old World. So rapid was the growth 
of the cities that new problems of housing and educating 
the masses became questions of vital importance. Public 
schools grew more popular and more practical in their 
courses. The foreign children who were educated in these 
institutions rapidly learned the manners and customs of 
the American people, and soon came under the influence 
of the American system of government. The newcomers 
did much to foster nationalism. They came to this country 
with the intention of making their home in the United States 
of America. Often they landed without any definite idea of 
settling in a special city or state. In this attitude they felt 
a general interest in the whole country, hence in the general 

292 



NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 293 

influence of their opinions they were wholly lacking in 
sectional feelings. 

In the South the population was still largely made up of 
the old American stock, whose deep-rooted convictions in 
regard to local interests dated through generations, whose 
personal regard for certain communities made sectional 
pride an innate feeling. The plantations were still worked 
mostly by slave labor. Thus the farming classes of Europe 
were not attracted to this district because of competition 
with the bond labor. 

Reforms. — In this period of American history, certain 
reforms were started that left marked improvement upon 
the social life of the country. Among these was a wide- 
spread temperance movement. There had been a great 
deal of drunkenness over the land. The distress and hard- 
ship caused by this evil habit were brought home to many 
persons who dispensed liquors on all social occasions. 
Clergyman, cultured, refined people, and highly moral 
citizens, all thought it good form to keep decanters of 
wine and other intoxicating beverages on their sideboards 
and serve to young and old this symbol of hospitality. 

Temperance lecturers took up the question and held 
public meetings where earnest talks were made in favor of 
" Teetotal Abstinence." These meetings were held all 
over the United States, and Washingtonian Societies and 
other temperance associations were formed whose members 
pledged themselves not to use nor serve any intoxicants. 
It was estimated that 600,000 drunkards signed the pledge 
in one year, and that many were reformed entirely from 
this direful condition. The effects were definitely felt in 
the reduction of crime, and in the great moral uplift that 
swept over the land. 

Prison Reforms. — In the early part of the eighteenth 
century the penal systems throughout the world were 
wretched in their plans for caring for the criminal classes. 



294 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Many persons were thrown into prison for debt and forced 
to languish in confinement without any opportunity to 
work and pay their indebtedness. In most instances the 
prisons were foul and unsanitary and bred loathsome dis- 
eases. The prisoners were kept in idleness, and were fre- 
quently whipped and mistreated ; no attempt was made to 
separate the classes of criminals, nor was any opportunity 
offered to them to reform. The indigent insane were also 
confined in prisons, and their distress was very great. 

Among those that 
sought to remedy these 
conditions in American 
prisons was a splendid 
woman, by the name of 
Dorothea Dix, who talked 
and wrote on the subject 
and kept up the work 
until Prison Reform Asso- 
ciations were organized, 
and many changes were 
made. States began to 
make appropriations for 
insane asylums ; prisons 
were made more cleanly 
and sanitary ; prisoners were taught useful trades ; young 
criminals were separated from the older prisoners; and 
debtors were no longer sentenced to long-term imprison- 
ment. Nor has this great reform movement ceased, for 
to-day it is one of the most active forces in improving the 
condition of this unfortunate part of our population. 

Woman's Equal Rights. — Another social movement 
that was started at this time was the Woman's Equal 
Rights campaign. Among the leaders of this issue was 
Frances Wright, who earnestly sought to secure higher 
education for woman. In the early days women's educa- 




DOROTHEA DlX. 



NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 295 

tion was limited to the study of a few subjects. It was 
usually completed in a high school, or young ladies' sem- 
inary, where the basis of the work included a course in cer- 
tain accomplishments that laid the foundation for social 
success. 

The broader fields of work were entirely closed to young 
women, and it took a great amount of earnest appeals to 
secure higher education for them. Oberlin College, Ohio, 
was the first to open its doors for coeducation. In time, 
other colleges gradually opened certain classes, until to-day 
nearly every university has all of its departments open to 
women. 

Later the leaders in this work took up the question of 
equal suffrage, and formed what is known as the Woman's 
Suffrage Association. This organization has a large mem- 
bership in every state in the Union. So influential has 
been their work that a number of states have granted their 
request already. In these communities women vote and 
hold office on the same basis as men. The suffrage question, 
however, has not been the only issue taken up by the 
Equal Rights' Association, but widespread plans for the 
bettering of conditions for women and children have been 
undertaken, and better wages, shorter hours for workers, 
child-labor protection, juvenile courts, day nurseries, and 
other interests pertaining to the welfare of women and 
children have been organized. 

Religious Revivals. — This era was also marked by ear- 
nest religious revivals. Protracted meetings were held by 
the different denominations in cities. Strong appeals were 
made for more active interest in church work. Out in 
the country, camp meetings were held that were largely 
attended by persons coming for miles to listen to the 
earnest sermons of evangelists and circuit riders. Sunday 
schools were organized where children were systemati- 
cally instructed in religious doctrines. Bible Societies for 



296 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



the distribution of Bibles were formed with the motto 
" A Bible in Every Home." 

About this time some students in Williams College dedi- 
cated their lives to Christian work in foreign countries. It 
was through this movement that the American Board of 

Commissioners for For- 
eign Missions was organ- 
ized, that has become 
world-renowned. 

Education. — The 
greatest advancement in 
the field of education was 
made in the reorganiza- 
tion of the public school 
system. Horace Mann 
advocated the idea that 
the public school should 
be the people's school, 
and that it should be 
patronized by rich and 
poor alike and supported 
by the state. This idea 
took hold of the Ameri- 
can people. The pat- 
ronage of the public 
schools increased, the 
course of study was re- 
vised, larger appropria- 
tions were made by communities, and wealthy men made 
munificent bequests to the cause of common education. 

During this period John McDonogh, a wealthy citizen 
of New Orleans, died and left the bulk of his fortune for 
public education in his native city, Baltimore, and in New 
Orleans. A splendid technological school was opened in the 
city of Baltimore. More than thirty-two public schools 




McDonogh Monument. Decorated by 
the Public School Children of 
New Orleans. 



NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 



297 



have been erected in New Orleans. The interest on the 
remainder of the McDonogh Fund is used to repair the 
present buildings. 

The courses in colleges were also changed to meet the 
needs of the country. The University of Virginia was the 
first college in America to establish the European idea of 
university training, whereby separate courses were intro- 
duced such as law, medicine, technology, etc., so that pro- 
fessional training was under- 
taken by colleges. Now 
this system has become the 
regular plan of the Ameri- 
can college. 

Normal training schools 
were also inaugurated, in 
which care was given to the 
preparation of teachers. 

Evening schools were 
opened in some of the cities, 
in which any and all persons 
who were employed during 
the day might attend night 
classes, and improve their 
opportunities for more lib- 
eral education. 

Lyceum lecture courses 
were also organized and series of lectures given in many 
cities. These lectures covered a wide range of subjects ; 
some of the most eminent men in America were employed 
in this circuit ; and much information was given to those 
who wished to accept this opportunity. 

Literature. — This period was also renowned for the 
activity of the American people in literary work. Among 
the most noted of the poets were the following : 

Longfellow. — Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, who con- 




Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



tinued his literary work, at this time published another 
volume of verses, including The Building of the Ship, 
Evangeline, The Courtship of Miles Standish, Hiawatha, 
and The Tales of a Wayside Inn. The latter contains the 
Ride of Paul Revere and other incidents of American 
history. For many years Longfellow was instructor in 

Harvard College, and 
his influence caused 
deeper interest in litera- 
ture to be taken by some 
of the rising generation. 
Longfellow also made 
contributions to the 
prose literature of the 
period. 

Poe. — Another poet 
of this time, who be- 
came internationally re- 
nowned for the exquisite 
beauty of his lyrics, was 
Edgar Allan Poe, whose 
poems, The Raven, The 
Bells, and The Ballad 
of Annabel Lee, have be- 
come familiar in all of 
our American homes. 
Poe's greatest contribution in the field of prose literature 
has been a series of short stories, some of which are classed 
as the greatest specimens of this form of writing. Perhaps 
it is more largely due to Poe than any other writer that the 
short story has become one of the most popular forms of 
literary expression of to-day. Among Poe's contributions 
to essay writing was an exposition of the form and struc- 
ture of the short story that has been accepted as one of the 
bases of the study of this feature of literature. 




Edgar Allan Poe. 



NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 



299 



Holmes. — One of 

the most genial writers 
of this era was Oliver 
Wendell Holmes, 
whose contributions to 
the field of poetry in- 
clude The Chambered 
Nautilus, Old Iron- 
sides, The Last Leaf, 
and The Deacon's 
Masterpiece. Holmes 
also wrote several 
novels, the best known 
of which is Elsie 
Vernier. Among his 
other prose works are 
the sketches entitled 
The Autocrat of the Breakfast 





Sidney Lanier. 



Oliver Wendell Holmes. 

Table and The Professor at 
the Breakfast Table. 

Whittier. — John 
Greenleaf Whittier, like 
Longfellow, also came 
from New England, and 
in his own community 
he is sometimes spoken 
of as New England's 
Quaker Poet. All of 
Whittier's poetry is well 
known throughout 
America because of its 
charm in narrative and 
descriptive qualities. 
Snow Bound, The Bare- 
foot Boy, Thanksgiv- 
ing Hymn, Barbara 



3°° 



AMERICAN HISTORY 




Francis Parkman. 



Frietchie, are among 
the best known of his 
selections. Whittier 
was an ardent advo- 
cate of freedom and 
was prominently con- 
nected with the aboli- 
tion movement in 
America. Some of 
his poems written in 
interest of this cause 
are Voices of Freedom. 
Lanier. — Sidney 
Lanier was also of 
this period. Born 
and reared in the 
South, Lanier has a 
more intimate and sympathetic interpretation of the natural 
setting and atmosphere of this part of our country than 
any other writer of this time. His beautiful poems entitled 
The Marshes of Glynn, 
The Plaint of the Mock- 
ing Bird, and Corn have 
earned for him the envi- 
able position of being 
rated as " the greatest 
of the American poets " 
by some of the modern 
literary critics. 

Parkman. — Among 
the best-known Ameri- 
can historians of this 
period was Francis 
Parkman, whose study 
of French pioneer life is 




John Lothrop Motley. 



NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT 



301 



the most comprehensive and authentic in this field of 
research. Parkman's style is polished and brilliant; his 
interpretation is sincere ; and his work is one of the 
greatest contributions 
to American history. 
The titles of some of 
his works are : Pio- 
neers of New France, La 
Salle, Montcalm and 
Wolfe, and The Jesuits 
in North America. 

Motley. — Another 
historian of renown of 
this time is John Lo- 
th rop Motley, whose 
study of the history of 
the Netherlands has 
resulted in the volumes 
The Rise and Fall of the 
Dutch Republic, and 
The History of the 
United Netherlands. 
These works have been 
internationally ac- 
cepted as authority on this subject and have brought to 
Motley the honor of being one of the greatest of the Amer- 
ican historians. 

Prescott. — William Hickling Prescott is also classed as 
one of our leading historical writers and his field of research 
has been in the history of Spain in America. His best- 
known works are The Conquest of Peru, The Conquest of 
Mexico, and the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella. 




William Hickling Prescott. 



302 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Topical Outline 

National Development. 
I. Industrial and Social Conditions. 

i. Population. 

2. Manufactures. 
II. Reforms. 

i. Temperance Movement. 

2. Prison Reforms. 

3. Woman's Rights. 

4. Religious Revivals. 

5. Educational Changes. 

6. Literature. 

Review Questions 

1. Why was there a large increase in population in the United 
States between 1840 and i860? 

2. What attempts were made to improve the conditions in the 
prisons in the United States ? 

3. What was meant by woman's equal rights movement? 

4. Tell something of the development of education in the United 
States during this period. 

5. Why should the following men be remembered : Longfellow, 
Poe, Holmes, Whittier, Lanier? 

6. Who were some of the leading historians of this period ? 

Reference 
Matthews : American Literature. 



CHAPTER XIX 



TEXAS REVOLUTION 

Colonists to Texas. — When the United States purchased 
Florida from Spain in 1819, the boundary between the 
Spanish and American line on the southwest was fixed by 
the Sabine River. Just ._____--_ 




across this line was the 
district of Texas, one of 
the provinces of Mexico. 
The Spanish govern- 
ment, anxious to develop 
this state, offered large 
tracts of land to any one 
who would settle a cer- 
tain number of families 
within a definite area. 
Many Americans took 
advantage of this offer. 
Among the earliest im- 
migrants was Moses 
Austin, of Missouri, who 
led a colony of families 
into the fertile region. 
It was not long after 
this that Mexico re- 
volted from Spain and became an independent republic. 
The government was very unstable, and most of the early 
presidents were tyrannical and usurped many privileges. 

303 



Stephen F. Austin. 



3°4 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Santa Anna. — Among the most successful of these dic- 
tators was Antonio de Santa Anna. He succeeded in con- 
trolling all of the local state governments except Texas, 
and made himself so unpopular that many of his enemies 
moved into the state of Texas, where they planned a revolt. 
Santa Anna removed the capital of Texas from San Antonio 
to Saltillo, a town in a neighboring state. This caused so 

much inconvenience that 
the Americans took up 
the question and sent 
Stephen Austin, son of 
the early pioneer, to 
Mexico City with a peti- 
tion asking that San 
Antonio be restored as 
the capital. 

Austin. — Austin was 
thrown into prison in 
the city of Mexico, and 
kept there for a year and 
a half. The Americans 
in Texas were so indig- 
nant that they joined in 
a plan for a revolt. 
Hearing of this, a garri- 
son of Mexican soldiers 
attempted to seize a cannon belonging to the defense of 
Gonzales, a Texas town. The Texans resisted and forced 
the Mexicans to leave the field. This occurred on October 
2, 1835. Thus hostilities were begun that continued for 
three months. During this time the citizens of Texas met, 
formally declared war against Mexico, and elected General 
Samuel Houston commander of the army. 

The Alamo. — Santa Anna was ready to take up the 
attack and march upon San Antonio. In this town there 




Gen. Samuel Houston. 



TEXAS REVOLUTION 



305 



was a fortified convent, known as the Alamo. William B. 
Travis was in command of this garrison of about one hun- 
dred and fifty men. When he heard of Santa Anna's 
approach at the head of one thousand troops, Travis pub- 
lished a message to the people declaring that he was sur- 
rounded by an army far outnumbering his own, and that 
Santa Anna was demanding unconditional surrender. 




The Alamo. 



Travis urged that aid be sent at once, but before any 
assistance arrived, he and his entire force were killed. 

Independence Declared. — Just at the time of this 
unfortunate incident, the Texans formally declared their 
independence. David G. Burnett was made president 
and a Mexican, Lorenzo de Zavala, was chosen vice 
president. 

Goliad. — Santa Anna continued his campaign ; and be- 
fore General Houston could prevent it, the Mexicans 
surprised a force under Captain Fannin at Goliad, and 
destroyed this garrison in the same brutal manner as in 
their attack upon the Alamo. 



306 



AMERICAN HISTORY 




..W?*l c 9, p >., •..,', A Vera Cruz^ 



San Jacinto. — These acts were so cowardly that they 
aroused the whole population to arms. A most gallant 
attack was made by General Houston at San Jacinto, where 

Santa Anna and his army were 
defeated and the former taken 
prisoner. 

Independence Won. — Later 
Santa Anna was released ; and, 
after signing a treaty in which 
he agreed to discontinue war 
upon Texas and recognize its 
independence, he was allowed 
to return to Mexico. Thus 
Texas won its independence, 
and a new republic was estab- 
lished in America. The United 
States recognized the new state ; 
when, in a short time, France 
and England did the same, trade relations with these 
countries were opened. 

Annexation of Texas to the United States. — It was not 
long after the Texas Revolution that the people of the 
new republic began to consider the annexation of their 
state to the United States. The majority of the population 
were Americans, whose interests had always been closely 
identified with the United States. As soon as this plan 
became known, England began to discourage the idea and 
to attempt to secure better relations between Mexico and 
Texas. Santa Anna, having already repudiated his treaty, 
was collecting an army for further invasion. It was 
hardly possible that there could be any friendly agreements 
between the opponents. Many of the immigrants to 
Texas were from the South and their cause particularly 
appealed to the southern people. 

As time went on, the question of annexation was to be- 



TEXAS REVOLUTION 307 

come a national issue upon which the people of the North 
and South were to take definite sides. The Abolitionists 
of the North and East were especially opposed to annexation 
on the ground that Texas was a slaveholding community, 
and that the addition of this vast territory would greatly 
increase the area of the slaveholding states and retard the 
chances of abolition of this institution of labor. President 
Tyler and his Secretary of State, Abel P. Upshur, and 
John C. Calhoun were earnest advocates of annexation, 
but the President did not publicly make known his plans 
until April, 1844, when he sent a message to the Senate 
proposing a treaty of annexation. The majority of the 
members of the Senate were Whigs, who promptly rejected 
the treaty. 

The Democrats were largely in favor of the movement, 
indorsed it in their national convention, and nominated 
James K. Polk, of Tennessee, as their candidate for Pres- 
ident. Polk, an enthusiastic advocate of Annexation, 
made this the chief policy of his campaign. 

The National Republican Party, which was largely Whig 
in its principles, nominated Henry Clay as their candi- 
date. Clay's popularity as a public speaker, and as the 
" great pacificator," had secured him wide admiration and 
a large number of friends. Since his position on the bank 
and tariff questions found favor with many voters in the 
North and East, it seemed as if there would be no difficulty 
in securing his election. But Clay, unfortunately, partially 
committed himself in favor of Annexation, which his party 
bitterly opposed ; and later, when he declared against the 
issue, the Annexationists were disgusted. The Abolitionists 
held a convention in Buffalo, New York, there organized 
their forces under the name of the Liberty Party, and 
nominated James G. Birney for the presidency. Birney 
and his followers, emphatically opposed to Annexation, 
succeeded in winning to their side many Whigs who were 



3 o8 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



not sure of Clay's position on this question. Polk was 
elected. Shortly afterwards plans for the annexation of 
Texas were completed. 



MEXICAN WAR 

Boundary Dispute. —As soon as Texas was annexed a 
dispute arose as to the boundary between Mexico and the 
United States. In 1803 the Rio Grande River had been 
recognized as the boundary of the Spanish state of Texas ; 

but when Mexico de- 
clared its independence 
from Spain, the Nueces 
River was the boundary 
between Texas and Mex- 
ico. The boundary line 
had never been defi- 
nitely fixed, however, 
and when Texas was an- 
nexed President Polk in- 
sisted upon the Rio 
Grande as the western 
boundary of Texas, and 
Santa Anna declared for 
the Nueces River. 

Declaration of War. — 
President Polk ordered 
General Taylor to oc- 
cupy a position on the 
Rio Grande to defend the territory. The Mexicans crossed 
the border, and a skirmish took place in which some of the 
American scouts were killed. A report of this incident was 
sent to Washington and proved the cause of declaration of 
war, May 13, 1846. Santa Anna gathered an army of con- 
siderable size and planned to attack the Rio Grande fron- 




James K. Polk. 



TEXAS REVOLUTION 



309 



tier. The Americans arranged three campaigns. The first, 
to defend the disputed territory, was commanded by Gen- 
eral Taylor. The second, against New Mexico and the 
northern part of Mexico, was under the command of Gen- 
eral Kearny and Major Doniphan. The third, a plan to 
capture the city of Mexico, was in charge of General Win- 
field Scott. 

Buena Vista. — Many of the American soldiers were 
well trained and did excellent service. The most important 
engagement of the war was the battle of Buena Vista in 
the Rio Grande district. Here both forces fought valiantly 
for many hours. Fi- 
nally Santa Anna was 
defeated. 

End of the Campaign. 
— The campaign against 
New Mexico was easily 
carried out, as there was 
little opposition to the 
army, and the small 
towns and villages sur- 
rendered without resist- 
ance. General Win- 
field Scott captured the 
outlying fortresses lead- 
ing to the city of Mexico 
and forced the surrender 
of this city. It was in 

this campaign that General Robert E. Lee gained his first 
military distinction. Generals U. S. Grant, Braxton 
Bragg, and T. J. Jackson also rendered services that gave 
promise of the later success that was to attend their mili- 
tary careers. 

Peace. — The treaty of peace was signed at Guadalupe- 
Hidalgo, February 2, 1848. By this agreement, the 




Gen. Winfield Scott. 



310 AMERICAN HISTORY 

United States secured the Rio Grande River as the boundary 
of Texas and also received the district of New Mexico and 
Upper California, for which Mexico was paid fifteen million 
dollars. The United States also paid three million dollars to 
American citizens holding claims against Mexico. Shortly 
after this a dispute arose over the boundary marked by the 
Gila River and a special purchase was made of this tract. 
This act is known as the Gadsden Purchase. 

Occupation of Oregon. — In the reign of Queen Elizabeth, 
Sir Francis Drake visited the western coast of North 
America in the neighborhood of Oregon, and named the 
district New Albion. The English government laid claim 
to the region, but no settlements were made there and 
little interest was taken in the district. 

An American sea captain explored the Columbia River 
in 1792, and by this expedition gave the United States her 
first claim to the territory. Later when Lewis and Clark 
explored the Louisiana territory, they reached the Pacific 
by way of the Columbia River and reported the advantages 
of the country. This account attracted interest in the 
Northwest. Astoria was built at the mouth of the Columbia 
River by some traders sent out by John Jacob Astor, of 
New York. The seal fisheries and the fur trade attracted 
other Americans to the country and gradually occupation 
was begun. By the treaty of 181 9, when Florida was pur- 
chased, Spain agreed to cancel her shadowy claim to the 
Oregon territory in favor of the United States. 

As a Part of the United States. — When Russia attempted 
to push her interests along the coast below Alaska, occupa- 
tion of the far Northwest became a question. Just about 
this time the President asserted the Monroe Doctrine which 
warned European nations against further colonization in 
America. Through these discussions of the question, 
Oregon became recognized as a part of the United States. 
In the meantime, an English corporation known as the 



TEXAS REVOLUTION 311 

Hudson's Bay Company, which had been carrying on the 
fur trade in British America for many years, pushed their 
camps far into the interior of the West. It was not very 
long before there was some rivalry between the Americans 
and the English in this region. The British ministry took 
up the question and asserted that the southern boundary of 
the English claim was the Columbia River. The United 
States claimed as far north as the Russian boundary of 
Alaska at 54 40'. Long and tedious international nego- 
tiations began, but no definite conclusion was reached. 
In the intervening years a new interest sprang up that was 
to bring the question to a final settlement. 

Influence of Religion into the Settlement of Oregon. — 
The story was told of how some Indians had heard the 
early settlers speak of a wonderful " Book " which contained 
the secret of all things. The Indians were so impressed 
with the idea that they were seized with a great longing to 
secure the precious volume. Presently four of their braves 
undertook a journey into the East to search for the " Book." 
They came to the city of St. Louis, but they did not tell 
their mission to any one. They remained in the city for 
some days silently looking for the treasure, but, failing to 
locate it, they returned. By chance, some person heard of 
their mission, and knew that they were searching for the 
Bible. The story was told and it was not long before a 
movement was started to send missionaries to the Indians 
in Oregon. Men and women were eager to go, and although 
the way was long and full of dangers, they were willing to 
brave the perils and carry the gospel into the new field. 

English Interest Aroused. — As the missionaries went 
on their way some were attacked by hostile Indians and 
massacred, and others were overcome by the hardships of 
the journey ; notwithstanding these discouragements, others 
took up the work and continued on the way. On July 4, 
1836, a company of upward of two hundred persons reached 



312 AMERICAN HISTORY 

the South Pass, in the Continental Divide. Here they 
raised the American flag, and after a service of prayer took 
possession of the Oregon country in the name of the United 
States. When this movement was reported to the English, 
new interest was aroused and some efforts were made to 
force the Americans out of Oregon. 

Whitman's Influence in Oregon Settlement. — One of 
the leading missionaries, Marcus Whitman, heard of this 
and made a memorable ride over the mountains and through 
heavy winter snows to the East in order to warn our gov- 
ernment. Whitman's self-sacrificing ride was rewarded by 
the taking up of the cause by two of the leading missionary 
organizations. The American Board of Foreign Missions 
and the Methodist Board of Missions raised large funds to 
aid the work. Many volunteered to go into the West, and 
when Whitman started back over the Oregon trail, he was 
accompanied by a thousand immigrants (1843). 

Boundary Fixed. — In 1844, the occupation or annexation 
of Oregon became a joint issue with the Texas annexation. 
Along with the campaign cry of " Polk and Texas " and 
" Clay and No Texas " was the slogan " Fifty-four Forty 
or Fight." After further negotiations with England a 
compromise was finally accepted, and the boundary between 
the English and American possessions fixed at the forty- 
ninth parallel, June, 1846. 



TEXAS REVOLUTION 313 

Topical Outline 

I. Texas Revolution. 

1. Spain Invites Americans to Settle in Texas. 

2. Moses Austin and his Settlements. 

3. Mexico Gains Independence from Spain. 

4. Texas Revolts from Mexico. 

5. The Alamo. 

6. Goliad. 

7. San Jacinto. 

8. Independence of Texas. 

9. Annexation of Texas. 
II. Mexican War. 

1. Boundary Dispute. 

2. War Declared. 

3. Three Campaigns. 

a. Disputed Territory. 

b. City of Mexico. 

c. New Mexico. 

4. Buena Vista. 

5. End of War. 

6. Treaty of Peace, Guadalupe-Hidalgo, February 2, 1S48. 
III. Occupation of Oregon. 

1. American Claim. 

2. American Missionaries in Oregon. 

3. English Interest Aroused. 

4. Marcus Whitman's Influence. 

5. Oregon Boundary Fixed. 



Review Questions 

1. Give an account of the American colonization of Texas. 

2. Why did the Texans revolt from Mexico? 

3. Describe the attitude of the American people in regard to the 
annexation of Texas to the United States. 

4. What was the boundary dispute between the United States 
and Mexico? 

5. What was the plan of campaign used by the Americans? 

6. Describe the principal engagement. 

7. Mention some of the leading generals in this war. 



3 X 4 AMERICAN HISTORY 

8. What were the terms of the treaty of peace? 

o. Give an account of the early history of Oregon. 

10. How many nations claim this country? What was the result ? 

1 1 . How did the Americans get control of Oregon ? 



References 



Garrison : Texas. 
Burgess : The Middle Period. 
Howard : General Taylor. 
Wright : General Scott. 



CHAPTER XX 
STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 

Wilmot Proviso. — During the Mexican War, many of 
the antislavery advocates became alarmed lest the pos- 
sible acquisition of new territory on the part of the United 
States might lead to the extension of the institution of 
slavery. In order to avert this, David Wilmot, a Demo- 
crat from Pennsylvania, introduced a bill in Congress pro- 
viding that slaveholding should be prohibited in all the 
territory that might be acquired from Mexico. At once, 
the question of the right of Congress to extend the Missouri 
Compromise line became the issue of the day. Public 
opinion was swayed, first on one side and then on the 
other, by the sharp debates in Congress and the comments 
of the press. The Wilmot Proviso failed to pass, but this 
did not settle the point. 

Free Soil Party. — Other phases of the slavery contro- 
versy were developed. In 1848, after the treaty with 
Mexico had been signed and the United States was in pos- 
session of a vast territory extending west of the Rocky 
Mountains to the Pacific, a new political faction was formed 
that took the name of the Free Soil Party. The members 
held a convention in Buffalo, and adopted a platform de- 
claring that " the settled policy of the American people 
has been to discourage and not encourage slavery." They 
also announced that they opposed any interference by 
Congress with slavery within the limits of any state where 
it existed, and they advocated the prohibition of slavery 

315 



316 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



in all free territory. The Free Soil Party took as their 
motto : " Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, and Free 
Men." They nominated Martin Van Buren for President 
and Charles Francis Adams for Vice President. 

Other Nominations of 1848. — In the same year, the 
Democrats met and nominated Lewis Cass, senator from 
Michigan, for the Presidency, and William O. Butler, of 

Kentucky, for Vice Presi- 
dent. They made no 
reference to slavery in 
their platform. 

The Whigs also held a 
nominating convention ; 
and, although their 
strongest numbers were 
in the North, they se- 
lected as their candidate 
for President, General 
Zachary Taylor, of 
Louisiana. The Whigs 
also omitted any refer- 
ence to slavery in their 
platform. General Tay- 
lor, like President Jack- 
son, had won distinction 
as a soldier, and his re- 
cent success in the Mexican War gave him special popu- 
larity. Taylor was elected. Then the Whig policies began 
to take shape. 

Discovery of Gold in California. — On January 19, 1848, 
gold was discovered by some workmen at Captain Sutter's 
sawmill on the Sacramento River, and immediately a new 
interest sprang up in California. It was said that the 
whole population turned their attention to this discovery. 
Men who were engaged in farming and in cattle raising 



,-■^9 


|v 




fe -mm 






k "n| 












/m 1K1|' 










Hi 

¥ ■ 


~-^^St '"'■ " 






■•^^^\ji. 






,JjlC - ' v ' 


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Zachary Taylor. 



STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 



3 J 7 



gave up their work to dig for gold. Soldiers, located at 
forts in California, abandoned their posts and rushed to the 
gold fields. Ship captains, entering the California harbors 
had difficulty in keeping their crews long enough to unload 
the cargoes. In fact, all of the population of California 
were roused by this wonderful discovery. 

It was not long before the rest of the states were in- 
formed, and then great numbers of travelers began to 
make their way to the Pacific coast. They came over- 
land in wagons and stages across the difficult mountain 




• & . .~„„^-J v 3u.-> '*.*«-'* 



The Conestoga Wagon. 



passes and through the desert, enduring all manner of 
hardships to make their way to the gold fields. Others 
came by way of the. sea route around Cape Horn, until 
by the autumn of 1849 the population had increased to 
upward of one hundred thousand. Most of these settlers 
were from the North and East, and those from the South 
were very few. There were no slaveholders among the 
new population. The white laborers who came to California 
did not favor the idea of slave labor. When a convention 
was called to adopt a state constitution which prohibited 
slavery, the delegates unanimously adopted it. 



318 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Compromise of 1850. — To the South the admission of 
California as a free state meant a grave situation. The 
state was both above and below the southern line of Mis- 
souri, which fixed the boundary between the slaveholding 
and free states. To admit the new state on the appeal of 
the California convention meant a repeal of the Missouri 
Compromise line. By this repeal all of the remaining 
territory could be admitted in the same way. This would 
also give a majority of votes to the free states in Congress, 
and this majority vote could abolish the whole system of 
labor throughout the South. Such a condition would sweep 
away the entire industrial basis of the southern states, and, 
without recompense or adjustment, bankrupt and impov- 
erish the district. The largest investments in the South 
were in plantations and negroes, both interests which were 
involved with banking and commercial affairs of the cities 
and towns. It presented to the people of the South a 
problem that was most difficult to solve, as it involved 
almost every interest of the people. 

Growth of Abolition Feeling. — In the meantime, other 
phases of the question of slavery were stirring the nation. 
Antislavery agitation was daily increasing and societies for 
the abolition of slavery in the United States were formed 
which did active work in shaping public opinion against 
the institution. Much of the literature published by these 
societies was extreme in its sentiments, and it was heartily 
resented by the South. 

There had been considerable encouragement of runaway 
slaves by some of the Abolitionists. Now the South de- 
manded national protection of this property. A movement 
was also started to pass a law prohibiting the sale of slaves in 
the District of Columbia. All of these ideas aroused much 
feeling on both sides. The old differences between men who 
advocated states' rights and those who stood for the old 
national party's plan for Federal control of certain questions 



STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 319 

were again revived. These issues were also taken up by 
the press. 

John C. Calhoun, who had so earnestly stood for South 
Carolina's position of states' rights on the tariff issue, now 
came forward as the champion of the States' Rights Party 
of the South. He was one of the oldest leaders in the 
country, but his zeal was as eager and his mind as deter- 
mined as in the earlier years of his eventful career in 
Congress. 

Henry Clay, who was seventy-three years of age at this 
time, had retired from public life, and was at his home, 





SEP 







Henry Clay's Home at Ashland. 

Ashland, Kentucky. But the situation in Washington 
seemed so grave that the Kentucky legislature unanimously 
elected him to the United States Senate in order that he 
might take part in the important measures that were before 
the national government. He, too, like Calhoun, was worn 
and infirm from the strenuous political life that he had led, 
but as soon as he reached the national capital, he at once 
plunged into the events of the hour, and prepared the last 
of his great compromises. 



320 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Main Features of Compromise of 1850. — This is known 
in history as the Compromise of 1850. It included within 
its scope the following recommendations : 

First, that California should be admitted as a free state. 

Second, that the territories of New Mexico and Utah should be 
formed without reference to slavery. 

Third, that the slave trade should be prohibited in the District 

of Columbia. 

Fourth, that new and 
more stringent laws 
should be adopted for 
the return of runaway 
slaves. 

Fifth, that Texas 
should be paid for cer- 
tain lands claimed by 
New Mexico, and dis- 
puted over for some 
time. 

The Great Debate. 

— Never in the whole 
history of the United 
States Congress had there occurred so momentous an oc- 
casion as this, when the great masters of oratory and logic 
presented their arguments for and against the Compromise. 

Clay opened the debate with a defense of the Com- 
promise. He argued for the preservation of the Union and 
reasoned that disunion would mean war. For two days his 
eloquent oratory and strong personality thrilled the eager 
listeners. He arose to the height of his old strength ; and 
at the conclusion of his defense he had won many to his 
side. 

When Calhoun followed, a great feeling of sympathy and 
pathos overcame the listeners. The old leader was too ill 
to speak. With indomitable courage he had prepared his 
last speech, a defense of southern rights and an opposition 




STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 



321 



of the Compromise ; and though it was read by a friend, 
Senator Mason, of Virginia, while Calhoun sat through the 
reading with the shadow of death upon him, his sym- 
pathetic adherents closely followed the trend of his argu- 
ments. The position taken by Calhoun, after he had care- 
fully traced the history of slavery in the South and defined 
its position at that time, was that " the Union could be 
saved only by conceding to the South an equal right in the 
acquired territory by causing the stipulations relative to fugi- 
tive slaves to be faith- 
fully fulfilled ... to 
cease the agitations of 
the slave question, and 
to provide for the inser- 
tion of a provision in the 
Constitution, which 
would restore to the 
South, in substance, the 
power she possessed of 
protecting herself." He 
concluded his speech with 
" If you of the North will 
not do this, then let our 
Southern states separate 
and depart in peace." 

Daniel Webster's Atti- 
tude. — While the debate Daniel Webster. 
was in progress, many 

persons wondered why Daniel Webster had not spoken. 
He was one of the great trio. There were many persons 
throughout the country waiting to hear his presentation 
of the question. Finally, on the 7th of March, he arose 
and made a supreme effort in behalf of the Union. He 
declared that he did not represent any section on the 
question, but that he spoke " for preservation of the union." 

Y 




322 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



He denounced the antislavery agitators, and rebuked 
those of both sections who had advocated the separa- 
tion of the Union. He recognized the right of the South 
on the question of the Fugitive Slave Law. For this 
he lost many of his adherents among the northern voters 
who felt that he sympathized too generally with the 
South. His speech was one of the greatest that he had 
ever delivered. It was eloquent in its figures and deliber- 
ate in its arguments. 

This event seemed the last rally of these masters of 
debate and rivals in politics. 

A younger generation was also heard in the persons of 

William E. Seward, of 
New York, and Salmon 
P. Chase, both ardent 
antislavery speakers. 
New leaders who ably 
represented the South 
were Robert Toombs, 
of Georgia, and Jefferson 
Davis, of Mississippi. 
They zealously carried 
forward the policies of 
Calhoun. 

Fillmore becomes 
President. — While the 
debate was in progress, 
President Taylor sud- 
denly died. He was 
succeeded by Millard 
Fillmore. Fillmore fa- 
vored the Compromise. Although thirteen states also sup- 
ported the bill, it did not pass as a whole, but the parts 
taken separately were carried and became laws. 

The Breach Widens. — The debates in Congress on the 




Millard Fillmore. 



STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 323 

Compromise had a far-reaching effect in creating wide- 
spread interest in the political plans of the period. 

In order to counteract the effects of the Fugitive Slave 
Law many persons gave secret aid to runaway slaves and 
helped to make their passage to Canada comparatively 
easy. Underground railroads, as these routes to Canada 
were called, gave no end of expense and thought to the 
United States government. Whenever cases of return were 
taken up by the government, then there would follow a 
sharp campaign against slavery by the Abolition adherents. 
The idea of national interference in the abolition of slavery 
was constantly keeping the South on the alert. 

Antislavery Literature. — Another influence that was 
very strong at this time was the work of the antislavery 
societies in publishing literature that created interest in 
the Abolition movement. Among the most striking works 
of the day was a volume of fiction by Mrs. Harriet Beecher 
Stowe, entitled Uncle Tom's Cabin. The book had a wide- 
spread sale. Hundreds of people, reading the graphic 
descriptions given by the author, were convinced that the 
scenes were true pictures of slavery in the South. In this 
way, many were won to the cause of the Abolition ranks, 
while, on the other hand, the whole text was severely cen- 
sured by the southern people ; they regarded the author 
as an antislavery advocate, whose vivid imagination had 
caused her to exaggerate real conditions 

Poems on slavery by Whittier also kindled the flame of 
the Abolition societies. Press writings in magazines and 
newspapers also added fuel to the fire, until the whole period 
seemed aflame on the subject. By this means the spirit of 
antagonism continued, until many were weary of the strife 
and longed to have the question put aside. 

Triumph of the Democrats, 1852. — When the presi- 
dential election occurred in 1852, the Whigs nominated 
General Winfield Scott ; and the Democrats, Franklin 



324 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Pierce, of New Hampshire. Pierce carried twenty-seven 
states and Scott four. It was the greatest presidential 
victory since the days of Monroe. Perhaps the defeat of the 
Whigs was due to the fact that the great leaders of this 
party, Clay and Webster, had passed away during this 
campaign, and no strong party members had risen to take 
their place. The neutral policy of Pierce pleased the 
people. Many hailed his inauguration as the beginning 

of a second " era of good 
feeling." 

Kansas-Nebraska Act. 
— But peace was only 
temporary. Some one 
raised the question, " If 
the Missouri Compro- 
mise line was removed 
in order that New 
Mexico and Utah might 
have the right to decide 
for themselves as to 
whether or not slavery 
should exist within their 
borders, why could not 
this privilege be granted 
to the undeveloped ter- 
ritory of the Louisiana 
Purchase? " The idea grew ; and Stephen A. Douglas, of 
Illinois, made the question national by introducing a bill 
into Congress giving the district in question the right of 
" popular sovereignty." The bill planned that the district 
should be divided into two territories ; namely, Nebraska 
and Kansas. It was definitely understood that the set- 
tlers in each state should decide for themselves whether the 
state should be free or not. 
The bill brought out fierce debates in Congress. Charles 




Franklin Pierce. 



STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 



3 2 5 



Sumner and Salmon P. Chase were bitterly opposed to it. 
Alexander H. Stephens, Robert Toombs, and Jefferson 
Davis spoke in its favor. In many places in the North 
mass meetings were held denouncing Douglas and the 
measure. Newspapers North and South published edi- 
torials against and for it. The bill finally passed. But 
then came the plan of 
putting it into force. 

Emigrant Aid Socie- 
ties. — As soon as the 
Kansas-Nebraska bill 
passed, preparations were 
made by both the pro- 
slavery and antislavery 
factions to gain control 
of the new territory. 
Missouri, which was a 
proslavery state, was 
nearest to the border 
and was the first to send 
settlers into Kansas. 

These immigrants established themselves on the Missouri 
River. Shortly after others came over and opened up settle- 
ments on the same stream. 

While these towns were developing, Eli Thayer, of Massa- 
chusetts, organized what was known as Emigrant Aid 
Societies for the purpose of encouraging emigration of anti- 
slavery men to Kansas, in order to establish the Free Soil 
movement in the territory. A large tract of land was 
secured; many persons of wealth and influence gave 
liberally to the cause ; and, in a short time, the first transfer 
of settlers began. Territorial government was organized 
by Congress, but it was not long before political differences 
began. 

Kansas War. — Both factions tried to gain control. 




Kansas and Nebraska (1854). 



326 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



And when the proslavery voters claimed the election of 
territorial representatives for their side, the election was 
questioned, and an appeal made to Congress to seek an 
investigation of the election. Differences continued and 
strife began in earnest. John Brown, an ardent advocate 
of Abolition, with several companions made an attack upon 
a proslavery settlement on the Wakarusa Creek, and 
killed several settlers. This aroused the proslavery men, 
who in turn struck a prompt blow at Lawrence, the Free Soil 
settlement, and destroyed some property belonging to an 

antislavery newspaper, 
but did not kill any one. 
The reports of the 
struggle spread all over 
the country. Greater 
enthusiasm than ever 
was shown in the Emi- 
grant Aid Societies ; and 
Missouri urged the South 
to send proslavery set- 
tlers to help hold the 
state. Each faction 
called conventions for 
the purpose of adopting 
a state constitution. The 
antislavery men assem- 
bled at Topeka, and 
drew up their constitution prohibiting slavery within the 
state. The proslavery advocates called a constitutional 
convention at Lecompton, and adopted a constitution, 
permitting the institution of slavery to exist within the 
limits of Kansas. Since neither would ratify the other's 
constitution, both were sent to Washington. The pro- 
slavery men proved that they had a majority of the votes in 
Kansas, and President Buchanan recommended the adop- 




Stephen A. Douglas. 



STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 327 

tion of the Lecompton constitution. But Douglas and a 
number of other members of Congress refused to accept 
this constitution on the ground that it did not represent 
"popular sovereignty," in other words, all of the people. 
The question agitated Congress until 1861, when the state 
was finally admitted as free soil. 

Presidential Election. — While the struggle in Kansas 
was going on, the presidential election approached, and the 
Kansas question became a part of the interests of the cam- 
paign. The Democrats chose James Buchanan as their 
candidate for President and John C. Breckinridge for Vice 
President. 

A new party rose in the North, known as the Republican 
Party. It was composed of northern Whigs and Demo- 
crats, who were opposed to slavery in Kansas. The Free 
Soil Party also cast their lot with this faction. The Re- 
publican convention was held in Philadelphia. John C. 
Fremont was selected as their candidate for the presidency, 
and William A. Dayton was named for Vice President. 

A branch of the Whig Party had been reorganized under 
the title of the American Party. The members of this 
party were afraid that the large numbers of foreigners 
that were coming to America would prove a menace to 
American institutions, so they advocated a policy of 
America for Americans. When questioned about their 
plans, the members of this party always answered : "I 
know nothing," hence they received this unusual name, 
" Know-Nothing Party." They were instrumental in di- 
viding the vote of the country. The Democrats won 
the election. 

Buchanan's Administration. — President Buchanan, like 
his predecessor, hoped to restore harmony in the country ; 
and, in his inaugural address, he declared that the question 
of slavery would soon be settled. Another issue, however, 
came up in the light of the celebrated test case on the Fugi- 



328 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



tive Slave Law. This case is known as the Dred Scott 
Decision. 

Dred Scott Decision. — Dred Scott was a negro who 
belonged to an army surgeon, Dr. Emerson. Scott had 
been held in bondage in Missouri, and was carried from 
that state to Illinois by his master, and later was taken by 

Dr. Emerson to Fort 
Snelling, Minnesota, 
where the doctor was 
located. This was rec- 
ognized as free terri- 
tory ; and when Scott 
was later taken to Mis- 
souri, he sued for his 
freedom on the ground 
that he had been living 
in free territory. The 
case was decided by 
the Supreme Court in 
March, 1857, with the 
result : firstly, that Dred 
Scott was not recognized 
as a citizen of the United 
States, but under the 
law as property ; sec- 
ondly, that a slaveholder had a right to hold slaves in 
a territory ; and, thirdly, that neither Congress nor the 
people of the territory had a right to interfere in such 
cases. 

The South hailed this decision with delight ; the North, 
with indignation. The issue entered into an election 
that was to make a memorable impression upon the people 
of the United States ; namely, the Lincoln and Douglas 
campaign for the United States Senate. 

Lincoln-Douglas Debates. — In 1858, Stephen A. Doug- 




James Buchanan. 



STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 329 

las and Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, were candidates for 
the United States Senate. The opponents agreed to meet 
in joint debate on the issues of the time. A series of seven 
meetings were held in different towns of Illinois, where 
crowds of persons gathered to hear the views of these two 
statesmen. Reporters followed up the speakers, taking 
notes of their opinions, in order that those too far removed 
from the towns to attend the meetings might be informed 
of the points of view offered by the two men. 

Douglas was one of the most brilliant speakers in the 
country. He spoke rapidly and emphatically, and carried 
his hearers with him by his convincing arguments. Lin- 
coln, in contrast, was a deliberate speaker, keen in reasoning 
powers and clever in devising questions for his opponent. 
By carefully shifting his questions, he was able to force 
Douglas either to yield to the opinions of the people of the 
South, or stand by the sentiments of the people of the state 
of Illinois. To do one or the other meant the loss of in- 
fluence in either case. When the election took place, 
Douglas represented Illinois in the United States Senate, 
but he lost his following in the South. Lincoln lost the 
election, but he won many friends who favored free soil, 
and he paved the way by his speeches for his nomination 
on the Republican ticket as President in the next year. 

John Brown's Attack on Harper's Ferry. — During the 
year 1859 a most unfortunate event occurred which pro- 
voked deeper feelings between the two sections. This was 
a movement to incite the slaves of the South to rebellion 
against their masters. The plan was worked out by John 
Brown, an ardent Abolitionist, who had taken an active 
part in the Kansas War. Brown succeeded in collecting 
funds with which to carry out his plan, and went into the 
region of northern Virginia where he rented a farm and 
established headquarters for his followers. 

He then made an attack upon Harper's Ferry, seized 



33° 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



the United States Arsenal, and proceeded to use the arms 
to equip the slaves of that district and prepare them for an 
attack. The slaves were indifferent to his scheme. In- 
stead of leading an insurrection, Brown was faced by groups 
of indignant citizens, who called upon the United States 
to suppress his plans. The United States troops were 
called out. Brown was arrested and tried for treason and 




Harper's Ferry. 



murder. He was found guilty and was executed in Decem- 
ber, 1859. 

The news of Brown's attempt to start so dangerous a 
movement as this insurrection caused the South great 
alarm. The agitator of this movement was looked upon 
as the representative of others who were supporting the 
plan. Throughout the entire South the feeling of alarm 
grew into great indignation. The truth was that John 
Brown was simply carrying out his own ideas and that he 



STATES' RIGHTS A NATIONAL ISSUE 33 1 

was not the representative of any movement. On the other 
hand, the execution of Brown produced among the anti- 
slavery men the most bitter feelings toward the South. 
Brown was looked upon as a martyr to the cause, and his 
fanaticism was regarded as earnest zeal for the good of an 
unfortunate race. The result was that this event aroused 
still greater feelings of bitterness on both sides. At this 
crisis the country seemed absolutely divided into two 
distinct sections. 

Topical Outline 

Question of Slavery. 
I. Wilmot Proviso. 
II. Free Soil Party. Other Nominations of 1848. 

III. Discovery of Gold in California. 

IV. California Asks for Admission. 
V. Compromise of 1850. 

VI. Great Debate. 

VII. Breach Widens. 

VIII. Antislavery Literature. 

IX. Triumph of Democrats, 1852. 

X. Kansas-Nebraska Act. 

XI. Emigrant Aid Societies. 

XII. Kansas War. 

XIII. Presidential Election. 

XIV. Buchanan's Administration. 
XV. Dred Scott Case. 

XVI. Lincoln-Douglas Debates. 
XVII. John Brown's Attack on Harper's Ferry. 

Review Questions 

1. What political conditions led to the introduction in Congress of 
the Wilmot Proviso ? 

2. Give an account of the discovery of gold in California. 

3. Describe the ways in which people traveled at the time of the 
discovery of gold in California. 

4. (a) What were the events leading to the adoption of the Com- 

promise of 1850? 



332 AMERICAN HISTORY 

(b) What is meant by the term Nullification ? 

(c) The Doctrine of States' Rights. 

5. (a) Describe the great debate on this subject. 

(b) In this debate, what part did each of the following take 

Clay, Calhoun, Webster? 

(c) Who were the other speakers in this debate ? 

(d) What was the effect of the debate? 

6. What was the Kansas-Nebraska Act ? 

7. What was the Free Soil Party? The Know-Nothing Party? 

8. Give a description of the settlement of Kansas. 

9. W T hat is meant by the Kansas War? 

10. What was the Dred Scott Decision? State the effect. 

11. Give an account of the Lincoln-Douglas debates. 

12. Tell something of John Brown's attack on Harper's Ferry. 



References 

Spillman : Seeking the Golden Fleece. 

Spring: Kansas. 

Brown : Lower South in American History. 

Phillips : Georgia and States Rights. 

Mumford : Virginia's Attitude toward Slavery and Secession. 



CHAPTER XXI 
A NEW CONFEDERACY 

Presidential Election. — In May, i860, the Republican 
Party held a convention in Chicago, and nominated Abra- 
ham Lincoln, of Illinois, and Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine. 
The party adopted a platform declaring for the Union of 
the states, admitting the right of each state to control its 
own " domestic institutions " ; in other words, legislate as 
it pleased regarding slavery, advocating the expulsion of the 
institution of slavery from the territories, and recommend- 
ing the admission of Kansas on the Topeka constitution. 
The party also declared for a higher tariff and revived the 
Whig policy of internal improvements. This platform 
met with hearty approval in many sections of the North. 

Division of the Democrats. — The Democrats met in 
Charleston, but there was a division in their ranks and the 
meeting was disbanded without the adoption of a platform. 
Later both divisions met in separate conventions in Balti- 
more. One adopted the principles of popular sovereignty 
as their platform and selected Stephen A. Douglas, of 
Illinois, for President, and Herschel V. Johnson, of Georgia, 
for Vice President. The other Democratic Party stood for 
the Dred Scott Decision, and organized a platform for the 
protection of Southern States' Rights. Their candidate 
was John C. Breckinridge, of Kentucky. 

Fourth Party. — The country was so widely divided on 
these issues that a fourth faction was formed under the 
name of the " Constitutional Union " Party. They nomi- 

333 



334 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



nated John Bell, of Tennessee, and Edward Everett, of 
Massachusetts. They made no reference to slavery, but 
adopted the platform, " The Constitution, the Union of the 
states, and the enforcement of the laws." The election 
was one of the most bitter in the history of our country. 
Strong sectional feelings raged on both sides. The coun- 
try seemed more divided than ever before. 

Lincoln Elected. — Lincoln was elected, having carried 
all of the northern and western states except New Jersey. 

There were few 
votes cast for 
Lincoln in the 
South, and al- 
though Breckin- 
ridge secured the 
majority of the 
votes from the 
southern states, 
yet a number of 
votes were given 
to the other can- 
didates. This 
indicated that 
the South was 
not united on all 
of the issues of 
the time, but there was one point of common interest and 
that was the opposition to the domination of the Repub- 
lican Party. The leaders of the South feared the outcome 
of the policy that the new administration might put into 
effect. 

Secession of South Carolina. — The strongest feeling 
was expressed in South Carolina. As soon as the election 
returns were known, this state called a convention to con- 
sider separation from the Union. The convention assem- 




Abraham Lincoln. 



A NEW CONFEDERACY 335 

bled in Columbia, but later removed to Charleston, where 
active measures for the withdrawal from the Union were 
made. The state militia was increased by the organization 
of new companies. Federal buildings were declared to be 
a part of the state property. All the South Carolinians 
holding government positions, as well as the Congressmen, 
resigned. Representatives of the convention were sent to 
other states to invite consideration of an act of secession. 
On December 20, i860, the convention unanimously 
adopted an ordinance of secession, declaring that the 
Union between South Carolina and the other states was 
dissolved. 

New Compromises. — When the news of South Carolina's 
secession from the Union was received in Washington, 
President Buchanan hesitated about what course he should 
follow. He was not in sympathy with the movement, but 
he felt that he had no right, under the Constitution, to 
prevent it. Lewis Cass, the Secretary of State, advised 
the President to use force in stopping secession. When he 
refused to do so, Cass resigned. 

John B. Floyd, Secretary of War, advocated the cause 
of South Carolina, and urged that the President grant 
South Carolina the right to control Fort Sumter. Presi- 
dent Buchanan also refused to do this and Floyd resigned. 

The moment was most critical. Finally the President sent 
a message to Congress, and brought the question formally 
before the Senate and the House. Congress attempted 
to bring about a reconciliation. Many compromises were 
proposed and in turn rejected. The most prominent of 
these was one brought forward by John C. Crittenden, of 
Kentucky. It recommended that the Missouri Compromise 
line should be extended across the continent, thus extending 
the division of slaveholding and free territory; it also 
proposed that the " Personal Liberty Laws should be 
declared unconstitutional." But this compromise fell 



336 AMERICAN HISTORY 

through and the movement for secession went forward. 
During the month of January these states followed the 
example of South Carolina : Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, 
Georgia, and Louisiana. 

Peace Congress. — At this critical moment, Virginia led 
a movement for peace among the disorganized states. 
The " Peace Congress," as it was called, was opened in 
Washington, on February 4, 1861. Representatives from 
twenty-six states were present. Here resolutions were 
adopted. But the time was too late. The southern states 
that had withdrawn from the Union were sending their dele- 
gates to Montgomery, Alabama, where a convention was to be 
held that was to draft a new constitution for a new nation. 

Confederacy Formed. — The convention held in Mont- 
gomery organized the seceded states into " The Confererate 
States of America " and adopted a constitution which was 
similar in general construction to the United States Con- 
stitution, but which omitted those features that were 
unsatisfactory. It provided for a six-year term for the 
President, and limited the powers of the central govern- 
ment. Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was elected Presi- 
dent ; and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, Vice Presi- 
dent. Montgomery was selected as the capital. 

The Inauguration of Lincoln. — Just one month follow- 
ing the organization of the Confederate States, President 
Lincoln was inaugurated. In his address on this occasion 
he expressed the following sentiments : that " The Union 
of the states is perpetual . . . that no state upon its own 
mere motion can lawfully get out of the Union. I shall 
take care . . . that the laws of the Union be faithfully 
executed in all the States." 

" The power confided in me will be used to hold, occupy, 
and possess the property and places belonging to the gov- 
ernment, and to collect the duties and imposts ; but beyond 
what may be necessary for these objects there will be no 



A NEW CONFEDERACY 



337 



invasion, no using of force against or among the people 
anywhere." 

Fort Sumter becomes the Test. — The harbor of Charles- 
ton is protected by a number of islands upon which forti- 
fications have been placed from time to time. When South 




Jefferson Davis. 

Carolina seceded, the most formidable of these posts 
was Fort Sumter. At this time the fort was occupied by 
workmen who were mounting the guns and putting the 
place in order. Not far from Fort Sumter was the old 
Fort Moultrie, that was not as strong as the former, so 
Major Anderson requested the United States to send him 
supplies and reported that he was removing his troops to 
Fort Sumter. As soon as South Carolina realized this, a 
general feeling prevailed that Charleston was menaced and 



338 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



that the state should promptly take charge of the fortifi- 
cations on the bay. It was not long before a steamer 
entered the harbor with supplies for Fort Sumter, and the 
state militia fired upon the boat and forced her to retreat. 

Major Anderson, who 
was in charge of the 
fort, continued to ask 
for supplies, and Gov- 
ernor Pickens of South 
Carolina requested Pres- 
ident Buchanan to give 
the fort to the state and 
to remove the national 
garrison. This the Pres- 
ident refused to do, but 
it was generally under- 
stood that he would not 
reenforce the position, 
and the affair was quiet. 
When President Lin- 
coln began his administration of the government, it was 
rumored that Fort Sumter would not be relieved. One of 
the first acts of the President, however, was to give notice 
to Governor Pickens that Fort Sumter would be supplied 
and held by the United States. Thereupon Governor 
Pickens referred the matter to President Davis. All the 
land forts were now occupied by the forces of the Confeder- 
ates. President Davis advised Governor Pickens and 
General Beauregard to prepare for an aggressive campaign. 
In April, 1861, the news came that a fleet with men and 
provisions was on its way to Fort Sumter. As soon as the 
news of the fleet's approach was learned, Major Anderson 
was advised by a series of messages from the Confederate 
authorities that if " faith with Fort Sumter " was not kept, 
it would be taken by force unless it surrendered. Major 




Charleston Harbor. 



A NEW CONFEDERACY 



339 



Anderson refused to agree to this and as soon as the fleet 
appeared in the harbor, the bombardment of the fort began. 
Major Anderson attempted to hold his position and returned 
fire ; but, after thirty-four hours of bombardment from the 
Confederate batteries, he was obliged to surrender. Before 
leaving the fort, the Federal troops were permitted to 




itlMtlllMWIliifflfflliitotoili^M 



The Bombardment of Fort Sumter. 



salute the flag. Under the escort of the Confederate 
forces, they were given transportation to a ship, and al- 
lowed to sail for New York. 

The War Begins. — When the news of the fall of Fort 
Sumter was received, there was a feeling that a war between 
the states had actually begun. In the North the greatest 
excitement prevailed. When it was reported that an at- 
tack was to be made on Washington, the militia of the 
northern states began to assemble. In less than a week, 



340 AMERICAN HISTORY 

the Massachusetts state troops were on their way to protect 
the national capital. As they passed through Baltimore, 
they were met by opposing forces that fired upon them. 
A slight skirmish took place. This added to the excite- 
ment, and caused many persons in the North who had sym- 
pathized with the South in the defense of her rights, now 
to turn with favor toward Lincoln and the preservation of 
the Union. Douglas hurried to Washington and offered his 
help to the national government in the crisis. Throughout 
the country the news of these incidents spread. Petty 
differences were now set aside in both sections. The na- 
tion divided itself into two determined factions with the 
simple names, North and South, defining them. Each 
were electrified by the idea that war had really begun. 

When President Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to 
help in the situation, more than 100,000 responded ; and, on 
the other hand, when President Davis issued a call for 
troops, thousands came forward from all of the Confederate 
states and pledged fortune and life to the cause of protect- 
ing the South's interests. 

President Lincoln's appeal to all of the states to furnish 
troops to subdue the seceded states prompted Arkansas, 
North Carolina, Virginia, and Tennessee to join the Con- 
federacy rather than bear arms against it. At this time 
it was decided by the southern leaders to remove the 
capital from Montgomery to Richmond, Virginia. 

The Great Conflict not Realized. — After all, neither 
side realized the vast proportions that this impending 
struggle was to assume. President Lincoln and his closest 
friends looked upon the situation with grave concern, but 
to them it was a " gigantic riot that could be suppressed 
within ninety days." 

To the southerners, the crisis would pass after a brief 
struggle. They were sure of victory and believed that the 
Confederate States would be recognized shortly as one of 



A NEW CONFEDERACY 341 

the representative nations. But succeeding events were a 
strange contrast to these prophecies. All over the South- 
land a proud, spirited people had risen in all their strength 
to defend their rights, whom it would take months of des- 
perate righting and days of dire privation and distress to 
dissuade from their firm purpose. It had been their full 
intention to organize peaceably a southern republic that 
would carry out its own policies and uphold its own insti- 
tutions. Now the denial of this plan by force of arms meant 
the rally of its greatest strength for the purpose of holding 
its own. 

On the other hand, the old message of Jackson, " The 
Union must and shall be preserved," became the war cry 
of the northern states. Over and over it was repeated ; 
and men of all ranks and occupations of life came to the 
call of the Federal government with a stern determination 
to recover the southern states and readjust the Union. 

Topical Outline 

A New Confederacy. 

I. Presidential Election. 
II. Division of Democrats. 

III. Lincoln Elected. 

IV. Secession of South Carolina. 
V. New Compromises. 

VI. Peace Conference. 

VII. Confederacy Formed. 

VIII. Inauguration of Lincoln. 

IX. Fort Sumter Becomes the Test. 

X. War Begins. 

XI. Great Conflict not Realized. 

Review Questions 

1. (a) Describe the presidential campaign of i860. 
(b) What parties nominated candidates? 



342 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



(c) Who were the candidates ? 

(d) What attitude did each party take toward slavery? 

2. (a) Why did South Carolina secede from the Union? 

(b) What action did the President and Congress then take 
toward South Carolina? 

3. (a) Name the states that followed South Carolina's example. 
(b) Were any efforts made to heal the breach between the North 

and South at this time? 

4. Give an account of the organization of the Southern Confeder- 
acy. 

5. What is meant by the expression "Fort Sumter becomes the 
test"? 

6. (a) When did the war between the states begin ? 

(b) Did either side realize the extent of the conflict ? 



References 



Wilson : Division and Reunion. 
Richardson : Messages of the Presidents. 
Davis : The Confederate Government. 



CHAPTER XXII 
THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 

Neutrality of the Border States. — At the opening of the 
war the border states, Maryland, Delaware, Kentucky, 
and Missouri remained in the Union, but they desired to 



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GULF OF MEXICO 
1 | Loyal Slave States \ 

^^Controlled by the Union. 



□ Controlled by the 
Confederate armies 



105 Longitude 100 West 95 from 90 Gr 




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The Confederacy, May i, 1861. 



take a neutral position on the question of the war. Their 
governors refused to answer President Lincoln's call for 
volunteers. Yet in all of these states there were men who 



343 



344 AMERICAN HISTORY 

were strongly inclined to take one or the other side of the 
issue. In Maryland this feeling went to the degree of 
serious preparations on the part of the secessionists to 
surround Washington and to cut it off from communica- 
tion with the North. Many northern regiments hastened 
to the relief of Washington. With these stationed in and 
about the national capital, it was impossible for Maryland 
to take any further measures toward secession. 

Struggle in Missouri. — In the month of May, 1861, 
sharp encounters took place between the Federal and 
Confederate factions in Missouri ; and for a time it seemed 
hard to decide which side would get control of the state. 
Captain Nathaniel Lyon of the United States army organ- 
ized the Federal forces and broke up the Confederate camp 
near St. Louis. The governor, who was in favor of the 
southern cause, was driven from the capital. It was not 
long before Missouri became one of the military bases 
of the Federal government. 

West Virginia Organized. — Forty-five counties of west- 
ern Virginia refused to join their state when she seceded. 
In May they called a convention at Wheeling for the pur- 
pose of adopting a separate constitution. President Davis 
made an attempt to put down this state rebellion, but the 
small detachment of Confederate troops that were sent 
into the district were defeated by General McClellan, 
and a Federal military base established at Wheeling. 
Later the discontented counties organized themselves into 
the state of West Virginia. 

Comparative Strength of the Opponents. — In 1861 the 
opposing sides stood in the ratio of eleven southern, or 
Confederate, states, and nineteen northern, or Federal, 
states. The North had the advantage of large numbers. 
At the outbreak of the war she had a population of twenty- 
two millions. Then the South had barely nine millions, of 
which three million and a half were slaves. But the South 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 345 

presented the best organization of sentiment. All of the 
North had not become entirely sympathetic with President 
Lincoln and his policies. This was due, perhaps, to the 
fact that in the North one in every fifteen of its population 
was foreign-born, but in the South the people were upon 
the whole native southerners, whose ancestors had lived 
for years on southern soil and who were identified with 
southern interests. 

The northern states had greater wealth in diversified 
farming and manufactures than the South. In the early 
days of the war there was but one foundry in the South 
that could make cannon and not a powder mill in the Con- 
federate states ; on the other hand, there were many 
flourishing arms factories and powder mills in active opera- 
tion in the northern states. The North had a number of 
vessels in her merchant marine ; and besides this there were 
many branch companies of foreign vessels located in her 
cities which were a great aid in the import and export trade 
of the country. The northern leaders had also control of 
the Federal government, which gave them the advantage 
of international treaties, control of the army and navy, 
the ownership of ordnance works, the collection of exten- 
sive revenue taxes on foreign and domestic trade, and of 
many other minor details that became advantageous as the 
war proceeded. The South was on the defensive and had 
the advantage of position. Most of the fighting was done 
on southern soil in regions comparatively well known to 
the southern forces. The fact that southern territory 
was being invaded by a hostile army roused the feeling of 
patriotism and home protection to the highest pitch. 
When war was declared, southerners in the United States 
army and navy resigned and cast their fortunes with their 
native states. So large was the number of resignations 
among the higher officers that it was necessary for the 
United States government to reorganize its forces. 



346 AMERICAN HISTORY 

In the matter of well-trained forces, the South had the 
most experienced and efficient officers. The rank and 
file of the Confederate army were men who were reared 
more or less in the open, on plantations and farms, or in 
cities closely allied with agricultural interests, and they 
were accustomed to horseback riding and hunting. In the 
recent war with Mexico most of the volunteers had come 
from the South, so that many of the Confederate soldiers 
had had some experience in army life. 

The resources of the South were limited to agriculture. 
" Cotton was king " throughout most of the states. Sugar, 
tobacco, rice, and corn were raised ; and, if trade with 
foreign countries could be continued, these products might 
be exchanged for army and civil supplies. The plantations 
were worked by slaves, so that in the event of the men's 
leaving for active service in the army, the cultivation of the 
estates could still be carried on by the trained negro work- 
men. But the South had no vessels ; in her manufactures 
she was very limited ; and she was totally dependent upon 
outsiders for arms and munitions of war. Her wealth was 
centered in agriculture ; and, if this were not adequately 
continued, or if there were blockades to prevent the export 
of raw material, then conditions would be direful. 

The Confederate government was too new to have 
attained any foreign treaties or commercial recognition as a 
nation. Both England and France were friendly and 
desirous of seeing the new republic established, yet no 
definite treaties were made except a general proclamation 
of neutrality. 

The Theater of the War. — The South was geographically 
divided into three regions that were destined to become the 
scenes of the active campaigns. The first was the long, 
narrow strip of coast lying east of the Alleghany Moun- 
tains. This was of marked political value because within 
this section were Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy ; 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 347 

Washington, the seat of the Federal government; and 
southern cities of active political force. 

The second region was the rich cotton and plantation 
area lying between the mountains and the Mississippi 
River. This was the source of most of the southern sup- 
plies. The district contained an important railroad that 
extended from Memphis on the Mississippi to Chattanooga, 
where it divided into two branches. One of these went 
northward to Richmond and thence to Norfolk on the 
coast ; and the other extended toward the South and found 
two terminals, one at Charleston and the other in Savannah. 
This railroad with its numerous short lines made a network 
of complete transportation for the bulk of the cotton trade 
for export. If the Mississippi River were blockaded and 
the railroad kept open, the trade with Europe might be 
carried on through the Atlantic ports. 

The third region was that west of the Mississippi River. 
This section was not important in a political sense, nor was 
it as strategic a military position as that of the center, but 
like the latter it was valuable because of its resources in 
agriculture. Its chief means of transportation was by way 
of the Arkansas and Red rivers to the Mississippi and 
thence to the Gulf of Mexico. There was an overland 
route through the state of Texas that connected with the 
Mexican trade routes of the Rio Grande. 

The Lines of Defense. — The South planned to make 
its defenses as soon as war was declared. In Virginia an 
army was arranged between Richmond and Washington. 
It was known as the army of Northern Virginia and was a 
protection to Richmond and at the same time a menace to 
Washington. General Joseph E. Johnston was commander 
of this division. Later when General Robert E. Lee was 
given charge of it, he made his famous defenses of Rich- 
mond through its service. 

In the middle region, a line of defenses was arranged 



348 AMERICAN HISTORY 

about one hundred and fifty miles north of the Memphis- 
Chattanooga railroad. This defense consisted of a series 
of forts beginning at Columbus, Kentucky, and extending 
to Fort Henry on the Tennessee River and Fort Donelson 
on the Cumberland River, and thence to Bowling Green, 
Kentucky. General Albert Sidney Johnston was in charge 
of this line. The Mississippi was defended by Forts St. 
Philip and Jackson below New Orleans, and fortifications 
were raised at Vicksburg, Island Number 10, and New 
Madrid above. 

THE PLANS OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 

Battle of Manassas, July 21, 1861. — Hearing that the 
Confederate government had ordered the defense of Rich- 
mond, President Lincoln directed General Irwin McDowell 
to make an aggressive attack. McDowell's army, consist- 
ing of about forty thousand men, was near Washington. 
It was supported by another army of twenty thousand 
troops under General Robert Patterson, located on the 
Potomac at the upper end of the Shenandoah Valley. The 
Confederates had an army of about twenty thousand under 
the command of General P. G. T. Beauregard. This divi- 
sion was encamped on Bull Run Creek not far from 
Manassas Junction, twenty-five miles south of Washington. 
This served to oppose McDowell's advance toward Rich- 
mond. General Joseph E. Johnston with a Confederate 
force of ten thousand men was located in the Shenandoah 
Valley to deter the movements of Patterson. 

General McDowell ordered Patterson to hold Johnston's 
forces in the valley to prevent them from joining Beaure- 
gard at Manassas. Patterson was unable to do this and 
Johnston with a portion of his army slipped away and 
joined Beauregard just before the engagement began. 

McDowell left a small force in defense of Washington 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 



349 



and advanced to make the attack on Beauregard's division. 
This undertaking was looked upon as an easy enterprise. 
The Union army left Washington, accompanied by many 
members of Congress who followed the army to see its easy 
success. 

The succeeding events were far more serious than had been 
anticipated. The armies met in a desperate struggle on 
Sunday, July 21. In 
the beginning of the en- 
gagement the Confeder- 
ate lines were driven 
back. 

General Bee of one of 
the divisions turned to 
General Jackson, in a 
rear line, and exclaimed, 
" They are beating us 
back." 

"Well, sir," replied 
Jackson, " we will give 
them the bayonet." 

This gave new courage 
and Bee called out to his 
retreating men : " See 
Jackson's line standing 
like a stone wall." 
- The effect was instan- 
taneous. The Federal forces were driven back. Upon 
the arrival of the remainder of Johnston's forces from the 
valley, the Union army was obliged to withdraw from the 
field and retreat toward Washington. The name " Stone- 
wall " remained with Jackson and to this day is perhaps 
better remembered than any other. 

This battle was a signal victory for the Confederates, 
the news of which filled the South with enthusiasm. Instead 




General Stonewall Jackson. 



350 AMERICAN HISTORY 

of pushing the engagement on toward Washington, the 
southern leaders turned their attention to strengthening 
the western lines of defense and increased their efforts to 
build foundries for casting cannon and other arms. The 
result of .the battle of Manassas, or Bull Run, was a dis- 
tinct surprise to the North. 

Plans were made to reorganize the army and an offensive 
campaign was planned as follows : 

First, to blockade the Southern ports to prevent the Confederacy 
from receiving foreign aid. 

Second, to control the Memphis-Chattanooga railroad, and thus 
seize the cotton trade. 

Third, to gain control of the Mississippi Valley, divide the southern 
states, and break the western line of defense. 

Fourth, to capture Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy, and 
break up the plans of this government. 

As the war went on other minor plans were developed, 
but for the main this program was carried out. We 
shall now briefly consider each part of the plan. 

BLOCKADE AND ITS EFFECT 

The Blockade. — Here and there along the Atlantic 
and Gulf of Mexico there were scattered a number of forts 
guarding the principal seaport towns of the South. When 
the states seceded, they declared their right of control of 
these fortifications, and as the organization of the Confed- 
erate government took shape, plans were made to utilize 
these forts for coast defenses. 

No Navy in the South. — The South had no navy and 
very few local ship companies. There were no shipyards 
of any consequence and but a limited number of ship car- 
penters. President Davis issued " letters of marque " to 
privateers. The most effective work of all was done by light- 
running boats that were built in England for the Confeder- 
ate government and were known as the " blockade runners." 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 



351 



The Importance of Cotton Exportation. — There was a 
great demand in England and France for cotton, and it 
was estimated that, at the opening of the war, the South 
shipped annually to Europe upwards of four and a half 
million bales of cotton. If this shipment could continue, 
there would be no trouble in getting 
the necessary supplies to keep up 
the defenses of the Confederacy. 

Northern Movements to Block- 
ade. — When the war opened Presi- 
dent Lincoln declared the entire 
South under blockade, but the Fed- 
eral government was not prepared 
to maintain this plan. Boats were 
ordered built, however, and efforts 





The Blockade of the Southern Coast. 



were made to enforce the system. In 1861 Fort Hatteras 
on the North Carolina coast and Hilton Head on the South 
Carolina coast were taken. In the next year a large fleet 
under Admiral Farragut took a position at Ship Island 
and planned to attack Mobile and New Orleans. 

New Orleans Taken. — In this year the fleet bearing an 
army under General Benjamin Butler made its way up the 
Mississippi, and, after heavy bombardment from Forts 



352 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



St. Philip and Jackson, managed to pass these fortifications 
and approach New Orleans. Heavy chains were stretched 
across the river to impede the progress of the fleet, but 
these were cut and the city taken April 29, 1862. By the 
Federal control of New Orleans, the Confederacy lost one 
of its largest cotton ports. 

The Florida and the Alabama. — In this same year, 
agents sent out by the Confederate government bought in 
England several vessels that were used to destroy Federal 




Battle between the Virginia and the Monitor. 



commerce. The most famous of these were the Florida 
and the Alabama. The latter was commanded by Admiral 
Raphael Semmes, assisted by Lieutenant Breedlove Smith. 
These vessels were light and swift; and, under cover of 
night, they would slip through the blockade with a load 
of cotton and make their way to the Bahamas or West 
Indies, where they sold the cotton to foreign ships. They 
frequently followed up the ships from the North and made 
many captures of rich cargoes both going to and coming 
from the North. All together two hundred and sixty 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 353 

American merchant vessels were captured on the open sea 
by these Confederate cruisers. In order to escape the 
attacks of these vigilant lighters, a number of Americans 
owning ships sold them to foreigners to avoid having them 
captured. It was estimated that the damage done to 
northern shipping amounted to upwards of $20,000,000. 

The Virginia and the Monitor. — When Virginia seceded 
from the Union, she took the naval base at Norfolk and 
there raised a sunken wooden war vessel named the Merri- 
mac. The old hulk was repaired and covered with a double 
coat of iron and armed with a heavy ram that projected 
from the prow. When completed, the boat was named the 
Virginia and placed in command of Captain Buchanan. 
It was taken to Hampton Roads to attack the Federal 
fleet that was blockading this harbor. From batteries on 
shore and ships in the harbor came volley of shot and shell, 
but without the slightest effect upon the Virginia. Cap- 
tain Buchanan made an attack upon the United States 
vessel, Cumberland, and, after ramming her side, caused 
this ship to sink into the sea with all her flags flying and 
her guns firing. 

The Congress was next attacked and set on fire. With 
this as a day's work, the Virginia withdrew to the Con- 
federate forts for protection and waited until the next day. 

In the morning, March 9, 1862, a curious-looking craft 
appeared in Hampton Roads ; This was the Monitor, an 
iron-clad vessel constructed in the Brooklyn navy yard 
by a Swedish inventor, John Ericsson. The deck of the 
boat was only three feet above water. Upon this was a 
revolving turret of iron from which projected two heavy 
cannon. The turret was easily shifted by means of ma- 
chinery, so that the Monitor could turn upon her enemy 
from side to side. 

When the Virginia appeared in the harbor, a battle began 
between the two boats which lasted for two hours without 

2A 



354 AMERICAN HISTORY 

serious injury to either. Later the Virginia withdrew to 
Norfolk, where it was finally sunk to keep it from falling 
into the hands of the Federals. The Monitor was lost off 
the coast of North Carolina the next year. The great 
effect of this engagement was that it taught nations the 
value of iron-clad vessels and in a short time revolutionized 
all the navies of the world. It was the beginning of the 
Dreadnought with its heavy covering of armor plate and the 
rise of numerous inventions of more powerful guns and 
armament. 

Effects of the Blockade. — As we have noted in the 
beginning of the conflict, the South shipped annually to 
Europe upward of four and a half million bales of cotton. 
Within two years, notwithstanding the work of the " block- 
ade runners," only one bale in a hundred reached the 
European ports. The price of the staple steadily rose in 
foreign markets, and in the South its price rapidly declined. 
There were few cotton mills in the southern states, so that 
there was practically little use for the commodity in great 
quantities. In many homes old-fashioned spinning wheels 
and hand looms were brought out from attics into active use, 
and homespun goods was made to meet the needs of the times. 

As the war progressed the blockade became more and 
more effective, and the South was almost utterly cut off 
from outside communication. The lack of textile factories 
and ordnance works, the limitations in diversity of crops, 
and the absence of skilled mechanics in the cities, made the 
problem of demand and supply more complex than before. 

FEDERAL PLAN TO BREAK WESTERN LINE OF 
DEFENSE 

Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. — After the first 
struggle in Missouri, Union forces were established at St. 
Louis under General Henry W. Halleck. This city proved 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 



355 



a splendid military base, as armies could be conveniently 
mobilized here and distributed into the Mississippi Valley 
or over into the district of western Kentucky. Another 
Federal base was located at Louisville under the command 
of General Don Carlos Buell. The eastern division was 
established at Wheeling, West Virginia. These three armies 
cooperated with one an- 
other and were the great- 
est menace to the center 
of the Confederacy. 

As we have mentioned, 
the Confederates estab- 
lished a line of defenses 
from Columbus, Ken- 
tucky, to Fort Henry on 
the Tennessee River, and 
Fort Donelson on the 
Cumberland, and thence 
to Bowling Green. 
These positions were ar- 
ranged to defend the 
Memphis-Chattanooga 
railroad, and to protect this rich interior district which was 
one of the southern sources of supplies. The first plan to 
break this line was made by General Halleck, who sent a 
force under General Ulysses S. Grant to seize the Con- 
federate camp at Paducah. In February, 1862, Grant was 
instructed to advance with a fleet of gunboats against 
Fort Henry. The force in charge of this position was 
small. Hearing of the approach of the Federal fleet, the 
commander was ordered to withdraw and add his garrison 
to the forces of Fort Donelson. 

After taking possession of Fort Henry, Grant sent his 
gunboats down the Cumberland River. He marched his 
army across country, a distance of twelve miles, and 




General Samuel Buckner. 



356 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



stormed the fort from the land, while the boats poured in 
shot and shell from the river. General Buckner, in com- 
mand of the southern forces, after a resolute siege of four 
days was obliged to surrender. This was a serious blow 
to the Confederates, for twelve thousand men were given 
up, besides much important artillery. 

With the fall of these forts, General Albert Sidney John- 
ston was obliged to withdraw the Confederate forces 

farther south and erect 
another line of defenses 
beginning at Jackson, 
Tennessee, extending to 
Corinth, and thence to 
Murfreesboro. By this 
adjustment, Nashville 
was given up and be- 
came a base for the 
Federal forces under 
General Buell. 

Battle of Shiloh, April 
6, 1862.— After taking 
Forts Henry and Donel- 
son, Grant transported 
his army down the Ten- 
nessee River to a point 
called Pittsburg Land- 
ing ; here he arranged a camp two miles from the river at 
Shiloh Church, and waited for the arrival of Buell, when he 
planned to break the second Confederate line of defense. 
To the Confederates occupying the position at Corinth the 
time was critical. 

General A. S. Johnston, who was still in command, 
planned to defeat Grant's army before Buell could arrive, 
then to meet the latter, and thus by a series of manceuvers 
to regain the ground lost by the fall of the two forts. 




General A. S. Johnston. 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 



357 



On Sunday, April 6, the Confederates made a bold attack 
upon the Federal camp at Shiloh. General Grant steadily 
resisted, but with great loss. By noon the remaining 
Federal forces were obliged to seek protection of the gun- 
boats at Pittsburg Landing, leaving most of their supplies 
at the camp. General Johnston was seriously wounded 
during the engagement ; and, while the South was rejoicing 
in this great victory, 
news came that this 
valiant officer had died. 
He was one of the great- 
est generals in the Con- 
federate army, and his 
loss was irreparable to 
the division of the army 
in which he was serving. 

Second Battle of 
Shiloh. — During the 
night following the first 
engagement, General 
Buell arrived with 
20,000 reinforcements 
for Grant's army. Early 
the next day the battle 
was renewed with Gen- 
eral Beauregard in com- 
mand of the Confed- Statue of 
erate forces. The en- 
gagement that took 
place was one of the fiercest of the entire war. The loss of 
life on both sides was very great. The Confederates were 
unable to hold their position ; General Beauregard was 
forced back to Corinth ; and the second battle of Shiloh 
was a Federal victory (April 7, 1862). 

Island No. 10. — This success gave the Union army con- 




Gexeral Beauregard at 
the Entrance to City Park, New 
Orleans. 



358 AMERICAN HISTORY 

trol of the western portion of Tennessee. On the same day 
that Grant won his victory at Shiloh, a Confederate posi- 
tion on Island No. 10, that guarded the lower Mississippi 
Valley, was taken by General Pope and Commodore Foote. 
General Pope now joined Halleck, who had taken charge 
of the army of Tennessee at Pittsburg Landing. With 
this immense force of 100,000 men he began a march 
southward toward Corinth, Mississippi. 

After taking Island No. 10, Commodore Foote then pro- 
ceeded to Memphis and forced its surrender. This literally 
opened up the entire territory from Memphis to Chat- 
tanooga. 

THE BLOCKADE OF THE MISSISSIPPI 

The Beginning of the Third Campaign. — After the battle 
of Shiloh, when Halleck gathered all of his forces at Corinth, 
Mississippi, he planned to close the Mississippi River and 
to cut off the fertile region of the South from sending sup- 
plies to Lee in Virginia and Bragg in eastern Kentucky. 
Just at this time Halleck was called to take command in 
Virginia and Grant was given charge of affairs in the West. 

Grant's Mississippi Campaign. — Grant now planned to 
capture Vicksburg and Port Gibson, two strong Confederate 
positions on the Mississippi, and at the same time carry 
out Halleck's plan of cutting off the Confederate army's 
resources. The Vicksburg district was defended by General 
Pemberton, who had fortified Port Gibson and Vicksburg 
and was watching carefully the movements of the Union 
army. General Grant attempted to advance upon Vicks- 
burg by way of Holly Springs, but Pemberton defeated his 
purpose, captured all the Federal supplies at this place, 
and retired toward Vicksburg. 

The Canal Plan a Failure. — Leaving Sherman in com- 
mand of the interior forces, Grant took an army by boat 
down the Mississippi with the hope of storming the city 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 359 

from the river. Vicksburg is located upon high bluffs and 
these were fortified so securely that it was well-nigh im- 
possible to make an attack from the front. Grant's plan 
was to pass the town and then approach it from the south. 
In order to do this he had the Federal fleet sail close to the 
Louisiana side of the river opposite Vicksburg. Here Grant 
dug a canal, then cut the levee, and attempted to float his 
boats around this cut-off back into the river. But the 
attempt was a failure, the waters rushed in, and a crevasse 
was formed that devastated the rich cotton district of 
Louisiana and at the same time made the passage impossible. 

Federal Boats taken past Vicksburg. — Commodore 
Porter, who was in charge of the fleet, suggested making a 
night run in front of the batteries. This plan was put into 
effect. The decks of the vessels were piled high with cotton 
bales and sacks of grain to keep the shot from the batteries 
from injuring the machinery of the boats and to conceal 
their fires. The fleet then started. Just as it approached 
Vicksburg, a cannon sounded the alarm and all along the 
hilltops bonfires were started in order to light up the river. 
The fleet came in full view and the batteries opened fire upon 
the boats, but speed was doubled and the fleet hastened by 
with scarce a moment's time to fire a broadside. In two 
hours the vessels passed the town and made their way to- 
ward Port Gibson. Grant captured this position and 
drove Pemberton's forces toward Vicksburg. 

Champion Hills. — The Federal army then advanced 
northward almost to Jackson, the capital of Mississippi. 
Grant made a stand at Champion Hills between Jackson 
and Vicksburg, and won an advantage over Pemberton, 
who retired to Vicksburg. Grant, aided by Porter's gun- 
boats, stormed the city, but was repulsed with great loss. 
Reinforcements were sent to the aid of the Union army, 
which steadily advanced against the Confederate position 
until Vicksburg was completely surrounded. 



360 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Siege of Vicksburg. — For six weeks the city was be- 
sieged. Day after day the gunboats made a fearful assault 
upon the town. Buildings were destroyed and the inhabit- 
ants became so alarmed that they resorted to digging 
caves in the sides of the hills in 
order to secure safety from the 
bursting shells. The army was in- 
trenched around the city, making 
every defense possible. But their 
position was desperate. Exposed 
to all kinds of weather, without 
shelter, poorly provisioned, and 
scantily clothed, they were reduced 
by illness until more than a third 
of their number were too sick to 
render aid. As the weary days of 
the siege continued, provisions ran 
low and the most meager rations 
were given to the soldiers, while the 
townspeople denied themselves to 
the point of starvation. Horses and 
mules were killed for food, and grain 
was almost entirely exhausted. In 
all the history of the United States 
there is not a more horrible picture 
of dire suffering of men, women, and 
children than in this awful siege. 
At last on July 3, white flags were 
seen fluttering over the intrench- 
ments of the soldiers. General 
Pemberton sent word to General 
Grant that he wished to know the terms of surrender. 
These were honorably granted. On July 4, 1863, the Con- 
federate forces laid down their arms, placing Vicksburg in 
the hands of the Federal troops. 




SCALE OF MILES , 



10 20 30 40 60 60 70 80 90 100 



The Lower Mississippi, 
showing the campaign 
around Vicksburg. 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 36 1 

In less than a week, Port Hudson surrendered. Thus the 
United States government once more controlled the Mis- 
sissippi River from its source to the gulf. The plan of the 
government in the West was successful. 

The Red River Campaign. — After these successes of the 
Federal army, there was but one important trade route 
that was left to the Confederates in the far South. This 
was an overland route through Louisiana and Texas that 
connected with the Mexican trade in the Rio Grande dis- 
trict. The supplies over this route entered Louisiana at 
Shreveport and were distributed from this point by way 
of Red River to the Mississippi into the Confederacy. As 
the blockade became more complete, this trade route rose 
in importance. Now special efforts were made to keep it 
open. 

President Davis appointed Lieutenant General E. 
Kirby Smith to take charge of the entire Trans-Mississippi 
division, including Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, 
and some of the territories. In March, 1863, General Smith 
established headquarters at Shreveport, Louisiana. From 
this place he directed his forces against the Federal invasion 
of the district. 

Battle of Mansfield. — Early in 1864 two Federal forces 
were ordered against Shreveport. One under General 
Banks was to operate in Louisiana, and the other under 
General Steele in Arkansas was to move toward Shreve- 
port and cooperate with Banks against the position. 
General Richard Taylor, son of President Taylor, was in 
command of the Louisiana division of the Confederate 
army. He was ordered to meet the Federal forces under 
Banks and prevent their cooperation with General Steele's 
division. Taylor took a position at Mansfield, Louisiana. 
Here on April 8, 1864, he defeated Banks's army. 

Battle of Pleasant Hill. — On the next day, April 9, 
Taylor renewed his attack by following Banks's army to 



362 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Pleasant Hill, where another battle was fought. Banks 
with the remainder of his army now withdrew to Alexan- 
dria, Louisiana. While these events transpired, General 
Steele with seven thousand men moved south through 
Arkansas toward Shreveport. On April 25, 1864, General 
Smith defeated General Steele's forces at Marks' Mill, 
Arkansas ; and five days later Smith had another success at 

Jenkins's Ferry (April 
30). Steele was obliged 
to withdraw to Little 
Rock, Arkansas. This 
move ended the Red 
River Campaign. Gen- 
eral E. Kirby Smith 
continued the defense of 
Texas until the close of 
the war. He was the 
last Confederate general 
to surrender. 

Bragg 's Kentucky 
Campaign. — After the 
battles at Shiloh and 
Corinth, General 
Beauregard, who was ill, 
was succeeded by Gen- 
eral Braxton Bragg. 
The latter planned a campaign in eastern Kentucky and 
Tennessee in order to draw the Federal forces from the Mis- 
sissippi Valley and the southern cotton belt. He did this by 
suddenly changing the Confederate base. He moved his 
army rapidly across Tennessee into Kentucky, where Gen- 
eral Kirby Smith had gained an advantage at Richmond, 
and planned to take Louisville as a military center. Bragg 
was hurriedly followed by Buell. The movements of the 
two armies took the form of a race across the country. 




General Braxton Bragg. 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 



363 



Buell reached Louisville first and Bragg engaged him in a 
battle October 8, 1862, at Perryville. Bragg was success- 
ful and captured a large amount of BuelPs supplies, but 
he was forced because of inferior numbers to make his 
way toward Murfreesboro, where his army went into 
winter quarters. 

Battle of Murfreesboro. — Buell was now removed. 
General Rosecrans was placed in command of the eastern 
division of the Federal army in Tennessee. Rosecrans 
attempted to follow 
Bragg' s army into Ten- 
nessee. On the last 
day of 1862 he succeeded 
in beginning a battle 
near Murfreesboro, on 
Stone River, which last- 
ed three days. It was 
a period of severe fight- 
ing, and both armies lost 
many of their forces. 
After the battle Bragg 
removed his army far- 
ther south near Chat- 
tanooga. With the ex- 
ception of skirmishes, 
there were no important engagements taken up until Sep- 
tember, 1863. In this long period of rest both armies 
made efforts to recover their organization. 

Battle of Chickamauga (September 19-20, 1863). — Late 
in the summer Rosecrans prepared to meet Bragg near Chat- 
tanooga. On September 19-20, 1863, one of the fiercest 
engagements of the war took place on Chickamauga Creek 
just outside of Chattanooga. Lee had sent General Long- 
street from Virginia to assist Bragg in holding his position. 
With these forces Bragg dealt a crushing blow to Rose- 




General George H. Thomas. 



3 6 4 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



crans's army and drove the Union forces into the town of 
Chattanooga. General George H. Thomas, who com- 
manded the left wing of Rosecrans's army, made a splendid 
defense of this position. He was repeatedly attacked, and 
each time he held his ground. Ever afterwards his soldiers 
called him the " Rock of Chickamauga." The loss of life 
in this engagement was very great. The Confederates lost 

nearly twenty thousand 
men and the Federals 
upward of seventeen 
thousand. 

Bragg now surrounded 
Chattanooga and held 
Rosecrans and his forces 
within the city, almost 
entirely cut off from sup- 
plies. The situation 
now looked desperate. 
A feeling of alarm spread 
over the North. Presi- 
dent Lincoln ordered 
immediate relief for 
Chattanooga ; and Gen- 
erals Hooker, from the 
army of the Potomac, 
and Grant and Sherman, 
from the Mississippi division, were sent to assist Rosecrans. 
Bragg then sent Longstreet to oppose Burnside, who had 
taken Knoxville and was also preparing to march toward 
Chattanooga to assist Rosecrans. This loss of men 
weakened the Confederate lines and gave the Federal 
forces an advantage. 

Grant was made commander of the Tennessee divi- 
sion of the army ; and, with the same skill and perse- 
verance that he had shown in the Mississippi campaign, 




General Joseph E. Johnston. 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 365 

he now forced open the way for supplies to reach 
Rosecrans. 

Battle of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge (No- 
vember 24-25, 1863). — Just outside of the city Bragg's 
army occupied a strategic position on Lookout Mountain 
and Missionary Ridge. Grant now planned to drive the 
Confederate forces from this position. Late in Novem- 
ber he directed Hooker to storm Lookout Mountain. 
Hooker climbed the mountain by a roundabout path, and, 
hidden by bushes and trees, he was able to get his soldiers 
in position before his movements were discovered. Bragg 
attacked him and here occurred the struggle known as the 
" Battle above the Clouds." Hooker gained the position 
and Bragg moved his forces to the Ridge. The next day 
the battle was resumed, Sherman advanced upon the 
northern end of the Ridge, and Thomas made a brilliant 
assault upon the front of the Confederate position. The 
southern army was driven from the mountain, and Bragg 
was obliged to withdraw into Georgia, where he surrendered 
his command to General Joseph E. Johnston. 

Grant then sent Sherman to relieve Burnside at Knox- 
ville. From here General Longstreet, who had begun the 
siege of this city, was forced to withdraw. He returned to 
Virginia to aid Lee in the defense of Richmond. 

With the victory at Lookout Mountain, the Federal 
forces after three years' righting controlled the western 
lines of defense. 

THE CAMPAIGNS AGAINST RICHMOND 

Further Plans against Richmond. — The Federal gov- 
ernment planned six definite campaigns against Richmond, 
of which the battle of Manassas, July 21, 1861, was the 
first. After this attack failed the United States arranged 
a strong military base at Harper's Ferry. It was in charge 



3 66 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



of Generals McClellan and McDowell and was known as 
the army of the Potomac. Another army was placed at 
Wheeling, West Virginia, in charge of General Don Carlos 
Buell. 

Second Attack against Richmond. Peninsular Campaign 

(May, 1862). —After 
the Federal forces 
secured control of 
Chesapeake Bay, 




The 



Peninsular Cam- 
paign. 



the following plan was made to 
capture Richmond. General 
McClellan took 120,000 men 
down the Potomac and landed 
them on the Yorktown Penin- 
sula preliminary to an attack on 
Richmond. He was to be joined 
by another army under General McDowell which was to 
move southward from Fredericksburg and attack Richmond 
from the North. In this way the two armies could meet 
and effect a complete surrender of the Confederate forces. 
In the meantime General Joseph E. Johnston brought 
most of his forces close to Richmond and waited for the 
attack. A small detachment of the Confederate army, 
under General Magruder, arranged themselves on the Pen- 
insula in front of McClellan so skillfully that they gave the 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 367 




Robert E. Lee. 



368 AMERICAN HISTORY 

impression of a large army. General McClellan, urging 
President Lincoln to send him more reinforcements, spent 
a month getting his army ready to make an attack on 
Magruder's forces. As soon as the Federal forces 
threatened, Magruder withdrew and led McClellan into 
the interior. 

When they came to the Chickahominy River, the Con- 
federates crossed ; and a part of McClellan's army followed ; 
but before the rest could ford the stream heavy floods 
raised the volume of water so that they were unable to 
join the forward division. General Johnston took ad- 
vantage of this situation, and, hastening to the Chicka- 
hominy River, gave the Union forces battle at Seven Pines 
and Fair Oaks. For two days McClellan was forced into 
heavy fighting, while he barely saved his army from defeat. 
Johnston was wounded and obliged to retire and General 
Robert E. Lee took command. 

Jackson's Valley Campaign (May and June, 1862). — 
While McClellan was waiting for McDowell to join him, 
General " Stonewall " Jackson carried out one of the 
most brilliant military campaigns of the war. Hearing 
that McDowell was moving southward, Jackson advanced 
through the Shenandoah Valley and by a series of quick 
engagements defeated two Federal armies, the first under 
General Fremont and the second under General Banks. 
Other forces were summoned to go into the valley and cap- 
ture Jackson ; but with the same rapidity that characterized 
his first engagements, Jackson wheeled about and made 
other vigorous assaults, defeating Fremont again, and the 
next day routing a force under General Shields. For a 
while it looked as if this fearless leader would get between 
McDowell and Washington and take the capital ; but 
instead Jackson hurried toward the South and joined Lee 
in the Seven Days' Battles. In less than six weeks Jackson 
had marched four hundred miles, fought four regular battles. 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 369 

engaged in numerous skirmishes, defeated four large armies, 
captured many supplies, and prevented McDowell from 
sending 60,000 troops to join McClellan in his attack on 
Richmond. At no time did Jackson's army number more 
than fifteen thousand men. 

When McClellan withdrew to wait for McDowell, Gen- 
eral Lee marched against the Federal forces and engaged 
them in a terrible struggle known as the Seven Days' 
Battles. On the second day a fierce assault was made at 
Gaines's Mill, in which General Fitz John Porter held the 
Federal forces in a splendid defense. Shortly after this, 
McClellan gave orders to shift the plan of the army. Then 
for four days the Federal forces made their way to the 
James River followed by the Confederates under Lee and 
Jackson. 

The last stand was made at Malvern Hill, July 1, 1862. 
Here the Confederates sustained terrible loss and retired 
to Richmond ; General McClellan and his forces made their 
way back to the protection of the Federal gunboats. The 
loss of the Federals was 23,000 men and that of the Con- 
federates 27,000. Richmond was saved and the Peninsular 
Campaign was a failure. 

The Federal government lost faith in General McClellan 
and removed him. General Pope was placed in command 
of the army of the Potomac. 

Third Attack against Richmond. Second Battle of 
Manassas. — As soon as Pope took command he re- 
organized his forces and made a direct march into Virginia 
toward Richmond. Lee heard of his approach and hurried 
forward. Jackson carried out another most brilliant plan. 
Hastening northward, he swept completely around Pope's 
army, got between him and Washington, and destroyed 
the Federal supplies at Manassas. Lee was ready with an 
attack at the front. Pope was surrounded, and another 
desperate battle took place on the old field of Manassas, or 

2B 



370 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Bull Run, August 29-30, 1862. Pope was defeated and 
was obliged to retreat toward Washington. After this 
battle the Federal authorities looked about for another 
commander for the campaigns against Richmond. 

Lee plans an Invasion of the North. Battle of Antietam. 
— Early in September, 1862, Lee decided upon a plan of 
invading the North. He went into Maryland and issued 
a proclamation asking the people of this state to join the 
Confederacy. This was not put into effect, and he planned 
to take his army through the state. He forbade his men 
to pillage any of the farms or places of supplies and offered 
to pay the people for provisions for his army, but the 
farmers refused to accept Confederate money. It was a 
difficult task to get the necessary supplies. When Lee 
reached Sharpsburg he had less than 50,000 men in his 
ranks, while across the Antietam Creek was the army of 
the Potomac numbering more than 95,000. Jackson had 
moved northward into Virginia and had captured Harper's 
Ferry with 12,000 soldiers and army supplies, but even this 
successful exploit could not help the situation at Sharps- 
burg. 

General McClellan was again in command. On the 17th 
of September the armies met in the battle of Antietam. 
The Federal forces were twice as many as the Confederates. 
Although it was a sharply contested field, it was an indeci- 
sive battle. Lee, after waiting all day for another attack, 
withdrew and returned to Virginia. If he had defeated the 
Federal forces and marched on to Washington, the situa- 
tion would have taken a different aspect ; but with the re- 
treat toward Virginia came the Confederate plans for 
another defense of Richmond. 

Fourth Attack upon Richmond. Fredericksburg. — Al- 
though Antietam was claimed as a Union victory, McClellan 
was blamed for not following Lee's army into Virginia and 
making another attack before the Confederate forces could 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 



371 



make their way toward Richmond. He was relieved of 
his command. Next General Ambrose E. Burnside was 
placed in charge of the army. Burnside eagerly and vigor- 
ously pushed forward into Virginia to make up for McClel- 
lan's hesitation. Lee's army was located in Fredericksburg, 
where, on December 13, 1862, Burnside madea bold attack 
to storm the heights. This was one of the most futile ef- 
forts of the war. Burn- 
side arranged his army 
with great care, and over 
and over again did these 
forces throw themselves 
against the Confederate 
lines, but all without 
effect. The Federals 
were forced back several 
times and at last Burn- 
side's men urged him to 
withdraw from the field. 
After great slaughter the 
Federal forces finally 
gave up and made their 
way across the Rap- 
pahannock. Once again 
Lee and his army held 
the defenses north of 
Richmond. 

The armies were greatly shattered by the last campaign. 
They now went into winter quarters and planned to recover 
their organization. General Joseph E. Hooker, one of the 
most superior officers of the Federal army, was placed in 
command of the Union forces ; and for months he carefully 
arranged his corps and made preparations for an attack in 
the spring. 

Fifth Campaign against Richmond. Chancellor sville 




General Ambrose E. Burnside. 



372 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



(May 2- j, 1863) . — Lee and the army of Northern Virginia 
encamped near Chancellorsville on the Rappahannock. 
Hooker was both aggressive and fearless in his plans. 
During April, he gathered about him one of the largest 
armies that the Federal government had placed in the field, 
and with stern determination endeavored to get around 
Lee's army by marching up the banks of the Rappahannock 
River. His army numbered upward of 130,000 men, and 

Lee's forces were be- 
tween 50,000 and 65,000 
men. Lee sent Jackson 
forward to engage the 
rear of Hooker's army 
while he planned to 
make an attack from 
the front. With the 
same intrepid boldness 
that had characterized 
all his other attacks, 
Jackson now hastened 
forward and by a flank- 
ing march reached the 
rear of the Federal army 
and threw the soldiers 
into confusion. The 




General Joseph E. Hooker. 



disorganization was effective, and while Lee made the attack 
from the front the vast army, so outnumbering its oppo- 
nents, was defeated with great loss. Hooker himself was 
stunned by a cannon ball and for a time was unable to 
give out commands. In this way part of his forces were 
never brought into active service. This was one of the 
most serious battles of the war, and the loss of life on both 
sides amounted to thirty thousand men. 

Death of General Jackson. — Brilliant as the victory of 
Chancellorsville was for the South, yet the Confederate 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 



373 



army sustained a tremendous loss in the death of General 
Stonewall Jackson. After reconnoitering for his army, 
Jackson rode back in the darkness toward the Confederate 
camp ; and on his way he was mistaken by his own men 
for the enemy and was shot. The wound proved serious 
and within the week he died. When General Lee heard of 
this great disaster he wept and declared to his men that 
he had indeed lost his right arm. The whole South mourned 
General Jackson's loss, 
and the soldiers felt that 
one of their greatest sup- 
ports had been taken 
away. 

Battle of Gettysburg, 
July 1-3, 1863.— While 
the Confederate forces 
in Virginia were suc- 
ceeding in their defense 
of Richmond, the west- 
ern lines of defense were 
being broken, and the 
Union armies were clos- 
ing around the southern 
sources of supplies. In 
order to attract the Fed- 
erals from that section of country and thus relieve the 
pressure, Lee planned another invasion of the North. He 
took his army into Pennsylvania and was followed by the 
army of the Potomac under General George G. Meade, who 
had succeeded General Hooker at the latter's request. 
General Meade was an able soldier, who had taken an 
active part in the battles of Antietam, Fredericksburg, and 
Chancellorsville. 

On July 1 the forward columns of both Lee's and Meade's 
armies met in battle at Gettysburg where fighting went on 




General ( 



Meade. 



374 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



all day. Two divisions of the Federal army were defeated. 
The others were forced back from the field through the town 
of Gettysburg. 

The armies now arranged themselves outside of the town 
on two long ridges that faced each other. The Federals 
were to the southwest on Cemetery Hill, while the Con- 
federates occupied Seminary Ridge. Intrenchments were 
thrown up. From this position the armies faced the guns 
of each other and most of the righting was done on the side 

lines. Finally on the third day 
Lee determined to storm " Little 
Round Top," one of the Federal 
strongholds. This position was 
held by General Winfield Scott 
Hancock, whose forces were se- 
curely intrenched behind a stone 
wall and embankments of earth- 
works. If this position could be 
taken and the army dislodged, a 
Confederate victory might be pos- 
sible. It was a desperate under- 
taking and Lee hesitated before 
putting it into effect. Generals 
Pickett, Pettigrew, and Trimble answered the call to lead 
the way, and fifteen thousand men came forward and cheer- 
fully offered themselves to almost certain death. 

With their colors flying the lines of gray, with military 
precision, moved forward down Seminary Ridge, to Ceme- 
tery Heights, a mile away. It was one of the most thrilling 
incidents of the war. Both armies watched with admira- 
tion as these brave men moved steadily down one hill and 
up the other. Charge after charge from the Federal cannons 
roared down into their midst, and the ranks began to grow 
thin, but with the most wonderful poise the uninjured 
closed in shoulder to shoulder, and without dismay charged 



sSN J \# | V 




*} $* 


^SMs^T**^ 






7 7 Hi T 


// 


Jlji§lAtU Round Top~) 


SOHMAV.N.Y. 


§$RouJd Top L_ 



Gettysburg Battlefield 
Last Day. 

Union forces = Confederate forces 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 375 

forward to the top of the hill. Hundreds perished in this 
daring undertaking, but some of the remnant managed to 
get over the ramparts and engage in a hand-to-hand en- 
counter. The effort was futile, however, and the remainder 
of the brave company turned back and slowly made its 
way to the Confederate lines. 

The loss of life at Gettysburg was very great. It was 
estimated that forty-three thousand men were lost on both 
sides. Lee took his forces back into Virginia and during 
the rest of the year the active fighting between the army 
of the Potomac and that of Northern Virginia ceased. 

In the fall of this year the field of Gettysburg was dedi- 
cated as a national cemetery, and President Lincoln made 
his memorable address that stands as one of the most nearly 
perfect of speeches in all the range of English literature. 

IMPORTANT NATIONAL QUESTIONS 

The Emancipation Proclamation. — Shortly after war 
was declared, Congress passed a law declaring that slaves 
were to be confiscated in all states that were on the Con- 
federate side. To many people in the North, this seemed 
the right plan of emancipating the negroes, and the idea 
grew as time went on. President Lincoln was frequently 
urged to" carry out this plan, but he insisted that the Con- 
stitution did not delegate to him the right to interfere with 
the institution of slavery in states where it already existed. 

As the war progressed the President came to the con- 
clusion that the Confederate army was being supplied with 
food that was raised by the slaves, and as a war measure 
he contemplated setting the negroes free. So many of the 
white men of the South were on the battlefield that if the 
negro farm hands were released from labor, there would 
follow a condition that would necessitate the surrender of 
the Confederate forces. 



376 AMERICAN HISTORY 

In March, 1862, Lincoln issued a proclamation encour- 
aging all of the loyal states to free their slaves, as the gov- 
ernment would pay for them. This was not done, and in 
the fall of 1862 Lincoln issued a warning that all persons 
held in slavery in any state, or part of a state, that was still 
in arms against the United States on January 1, 1863, 
would then be free. 

On January 1, 1863, he issued another proclamation 
declaring that " all persons held as slaves in any state, the 
people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United 
States, shall then, thenceforward and forever be free." 
This measure was entirely a war measure. It did not go into 
effect in any of the neutral states, and was put into effect only 
where the Union army was in control in the seceded states. 

Conscription Law. — At the opening of the war both 
armies were made up of volunteers who offered their serv- 
ices to their country. As the war went on the loss of 
life so depleted the ranks that it became necessary to pass 
conscription laws requiring all able-bodied men between 
certain ages to serve in the army. In the South, the need 
for soldiers became so great that recruits were made from 
the ranks of old men as well as mere youths. This was one 
of the greatest vicissitudes of the war. 

Draft Law. — In 1863 the Federal government also felt 
the need to recruit its ranks by compulsory military aid. 
The method used was known as drafting. Under this 
system a certain number of names of citizens was chosen, 
and the government drew lots as to who should go to the 
front. While the great engagement at Gettysburg was 
taking place, this plan of conscription was going on in New 
York City. It was bitterly opposed by many of the citi- 
zens, and in July a riot occurred in which upward of a 
thousand persons were killed and more than a million 
dollars' worth of property was destroyed. 

Cost of the War. — Besides the great loss of life on both 






THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 377 

sides, the cost of the war was enormous. In 1864, the 
Federal government was spending more than three million 
dollars per day in continuing the struggle, while the entire 
South was taxed to the utmost to sustain its part in the 
struggle. The invasions of the South had caused great 
hardship, and the country was becoming more and more 
impoverished. The North was more fortunate in this 
respect, and with its farms unmolested and its cities free 
from military dangers, the opportunities for making a live- 
lihood were practically secure. 

Presidential Election. — In 1864, with the increased cost 
of the war, loss of life, and " draft " acts, came a period of 
grave discontent in the North. This led to divisions among 
the political parties, and new factions were formed which 
stirred up agitation against the government. Among these 
factions was a division of the Republican Party known as 
the Radicals. These men were dissatisfied with the war 
policy and gave their support to General John C. Fremont. 
Fremont declined to lead the party, and the opportunity for 
its principles to dominate was lost. 

Many northern Democrats opposed the President's war 
policy and, in their convention in Chicago, they declared 
that the four years of war for the Union had been a failure 
and that peace ought to be made. They further asserted 
in regard to the President's emancipation policy, that 
" the war was changed from one for the preservation of the 
Union to one for freeing the slaves." They selected as 
their candidate, General George B. McClellan. The 
National Union Party renominated President Lincoln and 
indorsed the President's policies during the past four years. 
The election was unanimously in favor of Lincoln. He 
received four hundred thousand more votes than McClellan. 
Andrew Johnson of Tennessee was chosen Vice President. 

Hampton Roads Peace Conference. — As the great 
struggle went on, many persons both North and South 



378 AMERICAN HISTORY 

earnestly desired peace. This sentiment grew until ar- 
rangements were made whereby a meeting of representa- 
tives of both sides could be held to discuss the question. 
In February, 1865, a conference was held on board a steamer 
in Hampton Roads. The peace commissioners from the 
South were Alexander Stephens, Vice President of the Con- 
federacy, John A. Campbell, and R. M. T. Hunter. Presi- 
dent Lincoln and Secretary Seward represented the North. 
The meeting lasted for four hours and was harmonious in 
its proceedings. Mr. Stephens suggested that it might be 
well for the sections to arrange an armistice in order jointly 
to assert the Monroe Doctrine in Mexico, where France 
had stationed an army to support Maximilian in his control 
of Mexico. Mr. Stephens argued that the joint efforts of 
both governments to maintain these American principles 
would perhaps tend toward reconciliation and that, during 
the period of cessation from hostilities, the heated passions 
of both sides would abate and a kindlier feeling be kindled. 
Mr. Lincoln felt that he could not recognize the Confederacy 
in the position mentioned, and declared that he most 
earnestly desired peace, but that it could come only through 
a willingness on the part of the South to come under the 
rule of the Union and that the abolition of slavery should 
be officially recognized. Although the South was sorely 
affected by the heavy blockade, the great loss of life, and 
the dire poverty of its people ; yet the principle of self- 
government and the determination to be free from the 
domination of Federal rule was still so strong that the 
proposals of President Lincoln could not be accepted, and 
the war moved on into the year 1865. 

THE CLOSE OF THE WAR 

Grant becomes Lieutenant General of the Army. — 
Conditions in Virginia had become more and more dis- 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 



379 



couraging to the Federal army. The North was indignant 
at the " inefficiency," as it was called, of the commanders 
of the army of the Potomac. President Lincoln was 
criticized for his selection of generals for the Virginia cam- 
paigns. He had found great difficulty in choosing a man 
for the head of the army 
that would please the 
soldiers and the public 
at the same time. 

There was no one in 
the Union ranks who 
had been more success- 
ful in carrying out mili- 
tary plans than General 
Grant, and finally the 
President determined to 
trust Grant with full 
control of the United 
States army with the 
rank of Lieutenant Gen- 
eral. This title had 
been given only to 
Washington and Scott. 

Grant was in Tennessee when he was called to fill the 
position. He promptly set to work to carry out plans 
that would probably bring the war to a close. 

Plans against Atlanta. — General Grant now determined 
to begin what he termed " a hammering campaign." He 
was to go into Virginia and steadily attack Lee's army of 
Northern Virginia, while Sherman was to make his way to 
Atlanta and thence to Charleston and Savannah, to destroy 
the Confederate sources of supplies. 

Thomas and Burnside were left to control Kentucky and 
Tennessee. 

The Attack on Atlanta. — Atlanta was now second in 




General U. S. Grant. 



3 8o 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



importance only to Richmond. It contained factories and 
foundries and was one of the few places in the Confederacy 
that could furnish supplies to the southern army. To 
capture this city would be a heavy blow to the Confederacy, 
and would mean much toward defeating Lee in Virginia. 
The defense of Georgia was in the hands of General Joseph 
E. Johnston. General Johnston was one of the most effi- 
cient officers in the Con- 
federate army. His 
military genius com- 
pared well with Lee's. 
His skill in foiling the 
enemy and conducting 
retreats saved his army 
from a number of dis- 
asters. The district that 
he was now defending 
was one of the last avail- 
able sources of supplies 
for the Confederate 
army. Johnston's forces 
were very few and it 
was impossible for any 
reinforcements to be 
sent to him. He held a position at Dalton, Georgia, with 
a force of sixty-five thousand men. 

Sherman, with an army of one hundred and twelve thou- 
sand men, left Tennessee and started toward the South. 
He ordered the army of the Cumberland, a force equal to 
Johnston's entire army, to advance and make an attack 
from the front. He then sent the army of the Ohio and that 
of the Tennessee to close in on the sides of Johnston's forces 
and if possible get in the rear of his ranks. This plan 
would have surrounded this division of the Confederate 
army and separated it from the rest of the defense. Not 




General William T. Sherman. 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 381 

only would it force the surrender of these men, but it 
would also cut off Lee's source of supplies from the South. 
The situation was desperate. Johnston realized the danger 
and by a series of movements delayed the advance of Sher- 
man's divisions and prevented an open battle. As the 
Federal forces began their flanking movement Johnston 
fell back to Resaca, Georgia, where on May 14 and 15 hard 
righting ensued. Sherman again moved toward the rear 
of the Confederate army and Johnston fell back to Dallas, 
Georgia, where three battles were fought near New Hope 
Church on May 25, 27, and 28, 1864. Johnston now took 
a position on Kennesaw Mountain, and here, on June 27, 
the Federals made a vigorous assault but were driven back 
with severe losses. Sherman rearranged his forces and 
again began a flanking movement against the Confederate 
army. Johnston retired to Atlanta and prepared to fortify 
this city against Sherman's oncoming forces. These events 
greatly discouraged the South, and the Confederate gov- 
ernment, disappointed because the Federal forces had pene- 
trated so far into the interior, removed Johnston and gave 
his command to General John B. Hood. 

Hood's Tactics. — The Union army appeared before 
Atlanta just as General Hood took command of the city. 
He immediately began a vigorous aggressive campaign. 
With every movement of Sherman's army Hood made an 
attack. Three battles took place near Atlanta which de- 
layed the plans of Sherman. They were Peachtree Creek, 
July 20; Atlanta, July 22; and Ezra Church, July 2s; 
but these did not save the city. Sherman managed to get 
control of the railroad that brought -supplies to Hood's 
army, and after an attempt to regain control of the railroad, 
Hood was obliged to leave Atlanta and the Federal forces 
occupied the city. 

Hood now planned to attract Sherman from further in- 
vasion of the South by going northward toward Chattanooga. 



382 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



He succeeded in gaining control of the Chattanooga Rail- 
road over which Sherman obtained his supplies, but Sher- 
man did not follow. Instead he trusted to the Union 
forces in Tennessee to withstand Hood's aggressive policy. 
Hood continued his northward journey, hoping that he 
might defeat the Federal forces in Tennessee, then move 
over into Virginia, and aid Lee in his opposition to Grant. 

General Thomas, who was in command of Tennessee, had 
opened a military base in Nashville. This was supported 




Sherman's March. 



by an army under General John M. Schofield, a former 
classmate of Hood's at West Point. As Schofield's army 
was moving toward Nashville it was overtaken at Franklin, 
November 30, 1864, by Hood. Here a hard-fought battle 
took place, with great losses on both sides but without 
definite advantage. The Federals moved on toward Nash- 
ville, and Hood followed to the suburbs of the city. 
Thomas was now reenforced, and with an army of fifty- 
four thousand defeated Hood's force of thirty-five thousand 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 383 

men and forced the remnant to withdraw into Mississippi 
where they went into winter quarters. Hood now resigned 
from his position, and General Johnston was again placed 
in command. 

Sherman's March and Raid. — After destroying most of 
Atlanta, Sherman with his army of sixty thousand troops 
started out on a march to the sea that swept through the 
country for a width of more than forty miles. Towns were 
overrun. Public buildings, mills, houses, and barns were 
burned. Agriculture and manufacturing were destroyed. 
Railroads were totally destroyed by wrecking the engines, 
burning the cars, and heating and twisting the rails into 
useless iron. The devastation was complete and extended 
through the heart of the most fertile region of the South. 
It was estimated that upward of one hundred and twenty 
millions of dollars' worth of property was lost. The South 
to this day has not recovered from the injury committed 
during this terrible march. 

Grant in Virginia. — As these events were taking place 
in the South, Grant moved into Virginia and planned an 
attack against Richmond. With an army of one hundred 
and twenty thousand experienced soldiers, Grant crossed 
the Rapid an River and met Lee in a woodland thicket 
called the " Wilderness." Lee had a force of sixty thou- 
sand men. For two days the armies fought in detached 
squads without either side's gaining an advantage. Grant 
now determined to approach Richmond and made a flank- 
ing march toward Spottsylvania Court House. Here he 
was faced by Lee and for several days hard lighting went on 
with heavy losses, but Grant failed to dislodge Lee from 
his position. This was in May, 1864, and at this time 
Grant sent a dispatch to Halleck in which he declared, " I 
propose to fight it out on this line (the bloody angle) if it 
takes me all summer." 

This determined soldier now made another flanking 



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Virginia Campaigns, 1862-1865. 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 385 

march toward Cold Harbor and again made a heavy assault 
against the Confederate intrenchments. Here he failed. 
Then his great losses caused profound disappointment 
through the North, for in less than two months he had 
lost more than fifty thousand men in the Virginia campaign. 
The futility of the fighting and the apparently never ending 
disasters were causes of grave discontent. 

Grant now took his army across the James River and 
began an attack upon Petersburg. Here a siege was begun 
that lasted for months. 

Final Attack upon Washington. — In order to relieve this 
desperate situation, Lee sent General Early with nearly 
20,000 men into the Shenandoah Valley to attack Wash- 
ington. Early managed to outwit the Federal forces de- 
fending the city and soon came within the very limits of 
the national capital. The whole city was thrown into a 
state of alarm, and Grant hurriedly sent aid to the city, but 
Early slipped back through the valley, bringing with him 
timely supplies for Lee's impoverished army. 

Third Invasion of the North. — The Confederate forces 
were so encouraged by this success that they made another 
attempt to invade the North. Pennsylvania was entered 
and Chambersburg was burned, but nothing really came of 
the plan. 

Sheridan's Ride through the Valley. — Realizing that 
the Shenandoah Valley was the main source of supplies for 
the army of Northern Virginia, General Grant sent Sheri- 
dan into the valley to destroy all supplies and limit the 
resources of the army. 

With the same spirit of complete devastation that 
prompted Sherman's march through Georgia, Sheridan 
raided the beautiful Shenandoah Valley. Houses, mills, 
barns, and grain were destroyed. Cattle were driven ahead 
of the army, and so little food was left that the inhabitants 
suffered greatly. Sheridan himself remarked after the 



386 AMERICAN HISTORY 

ride, " A crow will have to carry his rations if he flies over 
the Valley." As this was going on, Early returned and 
defeated a Federal army at Cedar Creek. Sheridan, hear- 
ing the noise of the artillery, hurried to the scene and forced 
the Confederate troops to retreat. He then went toward 
the east and destroyed, within a few miles of Richmond, 
the railroad running from Lynchburg toward Richmond, 
so that Lee would be cut off from supplies from that direc- 
tion. 

Sheridan then joined Grant in the siege at Petersburg. 
He so arranged his forces that it was impossible for John- 
ston to render Lee any aid from the South. On April 2, 
1865, Lee withdrew from Petersburg and Richmond. 
During the evening President Davis and the other ofhcers 
of the Confederate government gathered up their state 
papers and made their way toward the South. Richmond 
was set on fire, and that night the capital of the Con- 
federacy fell into the hands of the Federal forces. 

The Surrender at Appomattox. — For three days the 
Union army pursued the last weary remnant of Lee's army. 
Without food, without munitions of war, without any 
possible hope of aid from anywhere, the last of the army 
of Northern Virginia with their faithful commander laid 
down their arms at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 
1865. General Grant allowed the men to keep their 
swords, horses, and baggage, and forbade any salutes to be 
fired in honor of the surrender. He then generously sup- 
plied Lee's men with food from his own commissary. A 
few days later General Johnston surrendered to Sherman 
near Durham, North Carolina, and in the next month 
General Kirby Smith surrendered his army in Texas to 
General Canby. The war was now over and the weary, 
impoverished soldiers of the " lost cause " made their way 
to their respective homes, while the tired Union soldiers 
gathered in Washington for a final review. For two days 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 387 

the ranks filed through Washington city on their way home, 
and it was estimated that upward of a million soldiers 
were reviewed by President Lincoln. 

Arrest of President Davis. — At the close of the war 
President Jefferson Davis was arrested in southern Georgia 
on charge of treason. He was imprisoned in Fortress 
Monroe for two years and finally released on bail. 

Topical Outline 
War Between the States. 

I. Neutrality of the Border States. 

1. Maryland. 

2. Struggle in Missouri. 

3. West Virginia Organized. 

II. Comparative Strength of the Opponents. 

III. Theater of the' War. 

1. Atlantic Seaboard. 

2. Middle West. 

3. Mississippi Valley. 

IV. Lines of Defense of the South. 
V. Plans of Federal Government. 

1. Federal Plan to Blockade Southern Ports. 

a. No Navy in South. 

b. Importance of Cotton Exportations. 

c. Atlantic Coast Blockade Begun. 

d. New Orleans Taken. 

e. The Florida and the Alabama. 

f. The Virginia and the Monitor. 

g. Effects of Blockade. 

2. Plan to Break the W r estern Lines of Defense. 

a. Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson. 

b. Battles of Shiloh. 

c. Capture of Island No. 10. 

3. The Control of the Mississippi. 

a. Beginning of the Third Campaign. 

b. Grant's Mississippi Campaign. 

c. Siege of Vicksburg. 

d. Red River Campaign. 

a. Battle of Mansfield. 

b. Battle of Pleasant Hill. 



388 AMERICAN HISTORY 

4. Along the Western Line of Defense. 

a. Bragg's Kentucky Campaign. 

b. Battle of Murfreesboro. 

c. Battle of Chickamauga. 

d. Battle of Lookout Mountain. 

5. The Campaigns against Richmond. 

a. Battle of Manassas. 

b. Peninsular Campaign — Jackson's Valley Campaign. 

c. Second Battle of Manassas. Lee Plans Invasion of North. 

d. Battle of Fredericksburg. 

e. Battle of Chancellorsville. Death of General Jackson. 
/. Battle of Gettysburg. 

VI. Important National Questions. 

1. Emancipation Proclamation. 

2. Conscription Law. 

3. Draft Act. 

4. Cost of War. 

5. Presidential Election. 

6. Hampton Roads Peace Conference. 
VII. Close of War. 

1. Grant Becomes Lieutenant General. 

2. Plans Against Atlanta. 

3. Hood's Tactics. 

4. Sherman's March and Raid. 

5. Grant in Virginia. 

6. Early Threatens Washington. 

7. Sheridan in the Shenandoah Valley. 

8. The Surrender of Appomattox. 

9. Arrest of President Davis. 

Review Questions 

1. What states desired to remain neutral? Give an account of 
their struggles. 

2. Compare the North and the South in regard to numbers, or- 
ganization, resources, foreign influence. 

3. Describe the theater of the war. 

4. What defenses were prepared by the South ? 

5. State clearly the Federal plan for subduing the Confederacy. 

6. Discuss one of these topics : Importance of Cotton Trade, 
Capture of New Orleans, The Work of the Alabama, The Struggle 
between the Virginia and the Monitor, The Effect of the Blockade. 



THE WAR BETWEEN THE STATES 389 

7. How was the first western line of defense broken? 

8. Describe the siege of Vicksburg. 

9. Give an account of the Red River campaign, noting its effect. 

10. What was the object of Bragg's Kentucky campaign? 

11. Describe the engagements around Chattanooga. 

12. How many campaigns were planned against Richmond? 

13. Describe the Peninsular campaign. 

14. Give an account of Jackson's valley campaign. 

15. Why did General Lee plan an invasion of the North? What 
was the effect ? 

16. Describe the battle of Chancellorsville. What great loss did 
the Confederates sustain at this time? 

17. Why is the battle of Gettysburg considered one of the most 
important of the war ? 

18. Describe Pickett's charge. 

19. Under what circumstances did President Lincoln issue the 
Emancipation Proclamation? 

20. What efforts were made to recruit both armies? 

21. What was the Hampton Roads Peace Conference? 

22. What Federal officer was promoted to the position of lieuten- 
ant general ? Why ? 

23. What were the Federal plans in 1864? 

24. Describe Hood's tactics. 

25. What were the effects of Sherman's march to the sea? 

26. Describe Grant's campaign in Virginia. 

27. Give an account of the surrender at Appomattox. 



References 

Gilman : Robert E. Lee (True Story Series). 

Trent : Robert E. Lee (The Beacon Biographies). 

Hart : Source Book of American History, Vol. IV. The Romance 

of the Civil War. 
Hapgood : Abraham Lincoln. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

CONDITIONS AT THE CLOSE OF THE WAR 

The South at the Close of the War. — The conditions in 
the South at the close of the war were deplorable. For the 
most part all the righting had been done on southern soil. 
The damage due to bombardments and to invasions of 
soldiers was enormous. Public buildings and private 
homes, churches and schools, had been destroyed. Rail- 
roads and their equipment had been wrecked. Steamboat 
transportation was crippled by the worn condition of boats 
which the owners were too poor to repair. Gins and ware- 
houses were out of commission, and merchants in towns 
and cities failed, while business was in a state of collapse. 
There was no capital, no money to revive the old lines of 
trade nor to put new plans in operation. Land was reduced 
to one half its value, and the wealthy southerners were ren- 
dered poor by the worthlessness of Confederate money. 

In the same proportion, the entire population suffered 
from the financial depression. In many instances, homes 
and plantations were sold for taxes, the owners being unable 
to pay the sums. The entire white population of army age 
had been enlisted in the fighting ranks, and at the close of 
the conflict more than one third of these had been killed or 
incapacitated. 

While the loss of life on both sides was nearly equal, the 
proportionate loss was far greater in the South because its 
population was much smaller. The most highly educated 

390 



CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTH AT CLOSE OF WAR 391 

and representative men of the South had gone forth and laid 
down their lives in the struggle. This sacrifice had an 
effect of far-reaching influence. The emancipation of the 
negroes caused a complete upheaval in all the agricultural 
districts. The old plantation system, that had been the 
most lucrative of all of the southern industries, was rendered 
useless until labor conditions could be readjusted. 

The Lincoln Appropriation. — President Lincoln had 
foreseen these conditions, and he realized the great distress 
upon the southern states in the matter of poverty. He saw 
how this poverty would be increased by the large numbers 
of recently emancipated slaves who had nothing but their 
meager knowledge of labor to stand between them and the 
vicissitudes of life. 

As early as February, 1865, Lincoln proposed to help 
the South by asking Congress to appropriate four hundred 
million dollars to be paid the southern states, provided 
war should cease by April 1, 1865. Congress refused to 
take up this plan and the matter was dropped. The atti- 
tude of Congress was a great disappointment to the Presi- 
dent. In his last public address he said : "It may be my 
duty to make some new announcement to the people of 
the South. I am considering and shall not fail to act when 
action will be proper." 

Beginning of Reconstruction. — Before Lee made his 
surrender, President Lincoln began the plan for restoring 
the Union. Throughout his administration he had stead- 
fastly considered his office of President of the United 
States to cover the entire country, North and South. He 
had refused to acknowledge the Confederate government. 
Although he worked toward the end of restoring the Union, 
he held aloof from all sectional feelings. 

Lincoln's Plan. — Lincoln's idea of reconstruction was 
to establish provisional governments in the seceded states 
until the states would lay down their arms and accept the 



392 AMERICAN HISTORY 

oath of allegiance to the United States government. Where 
the Federal troops were in control, President Lincoln had 
taken steps to readjust the political relations with these 
states by issuing a proclamation of amnesty by which he 
pledged himself to pardon all persons (with a few excep- 
tions) who would take an oath " to support, protect and 
defend the Constitution of the United States and all acts 
of Congress, including the Emancipation Proclamation." 
He further promised that when the voters in any sta te taking 
this oath were not less than one tenth of the number who 
had voted in the presidential election of i860, they might 
set up a state government and elect members of Congress. 

Congress's Attitude. — The states of Tennessee, Louisi- 
ana, and Arkansas accepted these terms and held elections 
and prepared to reenter the Union ; but Congress refused 
to accept their electors. This brought about a disagreement 
between the President and that body on the ground that 
Lincoln refused to accept the reconstruction plan of Con- 
gress, which was to consider the southern states as con- 
quered territory to be divided and governed as Congress 
should define. 

Division of the Republicans. — The question brought out 
very bitter sectional feelings on the part of the National 
Republic Party, and before it could be settled there was a 
division in its ranks, and those members supporting the 
President's policy became known as the Liberal Republicans, 
while those favoring the Congressional plan were called 
the Radicals. But an unfortunate event occurred which 
rendered the situation even more serious than before. 

The Assassination of President Lincoln. — While peace 
was being restored and the return of soldiers to their homes 
brought a sense of thankfulness into the hearts of the people, 
North and South, a great calamity fell upon the country 
that caused profound sorrow throughout the land. This 
was the assassination of President Lincoln by a fanatic 



CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTH AT CLOSE OF WAR 393 

named John Wilkes Booth. When the President was at- 
tending a performance in Ford's Theater in Washington, 
about ten o'clock in the evening Booth, who was an actor, 
slipped into the box where the President was seated and 
shot him. It was a most cowardly act and shocked the 
entire nation. The President died the next morning. 
Booth was shot twelve days later in a barn near Fredericks- 
burg, while trying to make his escape. 

On the same evening that the President was shot, an 
attempt was made on the life of Secretary Seward, but this 
was not effective. The accomplices in the assassination of 
the President were brought to trial and convicted. 

The death of the President was a distinct loss to all of 
the people. His ideas were so just, his aims so direct, 
and his sympathy so sure that the entire country lost a 
great guide and counselor. 

FOREIGN NEGOTIATIONS 

Trent Affair. — In the early part of the war, the Con- 
federate government sent James M. Mason, of Virginia, 
and John Slidell, of Louisiana, as Commissioners to England 
to treat with that government concerning neutrality. 
They managed to get through the blockade and reached 
Havana, where they took passage on the English steamer 
Trent. The vessel was stopped between Cuba and the 
island of St. Thomas by the United States cruiser San 
Jacinto. The captain of the latter ordered the surrender 
of Mason and Slidell as prisoners of war, and took them to 
Fort W r arren in Boston harbor. The matter was reported 
to the English government and a feeling of hot indignation 
arose over the incident. England demanded their release, 
and for a little while it looked as if a breach might occur 
between Great Britain and the United States. The United 
States agreed then that Mason and Slidell were passengers 



394 AMERICAN HISTORY 

on the Trent and as such had the protection of the English 
government and accordingly released them. 

Settlement of Claims. — Shortly after the war a number 
of issues between England and the United States required 
settlement, but the United States was not willing to take up 
these questions until Great Britain should make some 
reparation for the damages done to Federal commerce by 
the Confederate cruiser Alabama, which had been built 
and equipped in England. After some delay, commissioners 
of both countries met in Washington in 1871 to settle the 
controversies then pending. The boundary between British 
America and Washington territory was in dispute, and this 
was satisfactorily settled. 

The right of American fishermen in Canadian waters was 
also adjusted, and the Alabama claims were opened, with 
the result that the question was referred to a Board of 
Arbitration which met in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1872. 
At this tribunal, the United States was awarded damages 
amounting to fifteen million five hundred thousand dollars, 
which England later paid. 

Reassertion of the Monroe Doctrine. — While the war 
between the states was going on, a revolution took place in 
Mexico, and in the midst of the political turmoil, France 
came forward and assisted Maximilian, the Arch Duke of 
Austria, to secure control of the government in Mexico. 
The Mexican government was heavily in debt to France, so 
there was little resistance to the French army that came 
into Mexico to secure the claim of Maximilian. 

President Lincoln had observed the situation with grave 
concern, but was so occupied with the affairs in the United 
States that he was unable to give his attention to the 
Mexican question. It was a violation of the Monroe 
Doctrine. Before President Lincoln could remonstrate with 
the contending powers, he was assassinated. President 
Johnson took up the matter and requested France to 



CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTH AT CLOSE OF WAR 395 

remove her soldiers. He also sent General Sheridan to 
the Mexican border with a number of troops to watch the 
situation. France took the suggestion and recalled her 
army. The Mexicans then deposed Maximilian and tried 
him for treason. He was later executed in Mexico City 
(1867). 

Purchase of Alaska. — In 1867 the United States govern- 
ment made negotiations with Russia for the purchase of 
Alaska. The territory included more than five hundred 
seventy-five thousand square miles. The land was espe- 
cially valuable because of the seal fisheries, which abounded 
along its shores. It was advantageous for the United 
States to secure this district as it controlled the north Pacific 
Ocean, and its occupation by a foreign nation might prove 
a menace to the United States. Its ownership by the 
United States made the enforcement of the Monroe Doc- 
trine more certain. 

The price paid for Alaska was seven million two hundred 
thousand dollars. At the time of the purchase this 
amount was thought to be a very high price for a barren, 
frozen district, as it was described. Since its acquisition, 
it has greatly enriched the United States by the dis- 
covery of valuable mines of gold and coal. The seal 
fisheries have continued to be a lucrative trade and the 
investment has paid for itself several times. 

Topical Outline 

Conditions in South at the Close of War. 
I. The Lincoln Appropriation. 
II. President Lincoln's Plan for Reconstruction. 

III. Assassination of Lincoln. 

IV. Foreign Negotiations. 

1. Trent Affair. 

2. Alabama Claims. 

3. Reassertion of the Monroe Doctrine. 

4. Purchase of Alaska. 



396 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Review Questions 

i. Describe the conditions in the South at the close of the war: 

(a) As to the condition of homes, churches, and schools ; 

(b) As to the condition of railroad lines and steamship lines ; 

(c) As to agriculture, manufacturing, and trade ; 

(d) As to laborers to carry on the industries ; 

(e) As to capital to build new industries. 

2. Describe the conditions in the North at the close of the war. 

3. What was the Lincoln appropriation? 

4. How do you think the South would have received Mr. Lincoln's 
proposal of this appropriation ? 

5. What was President Lincoln's plan for reconstruction? 

6. Give an account of the assassination of President Lincoln. 

7. How do you think the assassination of President Lincoln affected 
the reconstruction of the South ? 

8. How did the people of the whole country feel about the assas- 
sination of President Lincoln? 

9. Discuss the following topics : Trent Affair, Alabama Claims, 
Reassertion of the Monroe Doctrine, The Purchase of Alaska. 



References 

Foster : A Century of Diplomacy. 
Dans : Rise and Fall of the Confederacy. 
Wilson : Division and Reunion. 
Fleming : Documentary History. 
Coman : Industrial History of the United States. 
The South in the Building of the Nation. 



CHAPTER XXIV 



RECONSTRUCTION 



Vice President Johnson and his Plans. — Upon the 
death of President Lincoln, Vice President Johnson took 
up the office of the Chief Executive. Like Lincoln, Johnson 
was a self-made man 
of the people. He had 
risen to the high posi- 
tion which he had oc- 
cupied through energy 
and strong determina- 
tion. He lacked Lin- 
coln's wisdom and tact, 
and was bold and self- 
assertive in his manner. 

This period was, per- 
haps, the most critical 
in American history and 
required a man with 
clearness of aim, sincer- 
ity in method, and a 
shrewd knowledge of 
men to cope with the 
problems of the hour. 

Johnson was born and reared in the South ; and, although 
he was consistently a Union man, a non-slaveholder, and 
entirely in sympathy with Lincoln's plans, yet his position 
was difficult. If Lincoln had lived, he perhaps could have 

397 




Andrew Johnson. 



398 AMERICAN HISTORY 

brought Congress to his point of view in regard to recon- 
struction, but with Johnson the situation was more un- 
certain. Congress was not in session when Johnson was 
inaugurated. Without waiting for further advice, the new 
President began to set in motion his plans in the South. 

Amnesty Proclamation. — He issued an Amnesty Proc- 
lamation similar to that of Lincoln's and offered full citizen- 
ship to all ex-Confederates who would take the oath of 
allegiance to the United States. High officials and all 
persons who had left the service of the United States to 
serve under the Confederate government were excepted, 
but these might have their rights restored to them by mak- 
ing personal application to the President. 

Organizing State Governments. — Johnson appointed 
provisional governors in all of the southern states and re- 
quested them to call, for the purpose of organizing state 
governments, conventions of those citizens who had taken 
the oath of allegiance. This was promptly done. Many 
ex-Confederates accepted the plan and immediately began 
to organize state governments that would be acceptable 
to the United States Congress. In many of the states the 
Thirteenth Amendment, which legally abolished slavery, 
was ratified. By this act the amendment became a law. 

The Attitude of Congress toward the South. — With the 
close of 1865, an tne southern states, except Texas, 
had adopted reconstruction measures and were recognized 
by the President. In December of this year these states 
sent their delegates to Washington to be admitted into 
Congress, but a very different situation met the southern 
delegation. When Congress convened, it promptly re- 
jected Johnson's plan and refused to admit either senators 
or representatives into Congress. Moreover, this august 
body appointed a joint committee from both houses to 
take up the plan of reconstruction, and to decide all ques- 
tions concerning the admission of the states. 



RECONSTRUCTION 399 

The factions that had come into existence just before the 
death of President Lincoln now began to work against 
each other, but the extreme Radicals were in a majority in 
Congress and their policy was put into effect. 

Congressional Plan of Reconstruction. — The South was 
to be divided into five military districts. Military rule was 
then to be established. Under this new regime all rights 
of citizenship were withheld from any one who had taken 
part in the defense of the Confederacy. The negroes 
were given full rights of suffrage. And all debts incurred 
by the Confederate states were to be repudiated. 

The result of this was a heated controversy between the 
President and Congress. The latter, led by Thaddeus 
Stevens, an extreme Radical from Pennsylvania, succeeded 
in passing a number of measures in Congress, among which 
were the " Civil Rights " bill, giving negroes full citizen- 
ship, and another bill providing that Congress should control 
the Freedmen's Bureau. The President vetoed these meas- 
ures, and Congress passed them over the President's veto. 
Johnson grew indignant, and he made many vigorous pro- 
tests against this method. The people in both sections of 
the country were alarmed lest another civil war might ensue. 

Fourteenth Amendment. — The most extreme act passed 
by this Congress was the Fourteenth Amendment. Its 
important features were : 

First, the negroes were declared citizens of the United States. 

Second, representation was apportioned according to their re- 
spective numbers. 

Third, the ex-Confederates who had borne arms against the United 
States were denied the right to hold office. 

Fourth, the debt incurred by the United States during the war 
should not be questioned, and the debt incurred by the Confederate 
states should be considered illegal and void. 

President Johnson sent an urgent message to Congress 
asking that the amendment be set aside ; but Congress 



400 AMERICAN HISTORY 

ignored the request, at once passed the act, and proceeded 
to take up the work of reconstruction. States were notified 
that if they would accept the Fourteenth Amendment and 
ratify the same they would then be admitted into the 
Union. Tennessee was dominated by Radicals who ac- 
cepted this proposition ; and, under these circumstances, 
this state was readmitted by a joint resolution of Congress. 

When Congress adjourned, President Johnson took his 
cause before the people. He made a tour of the country, 
and in violent and abusive language denounced Congress. 
He was no respecter of persons. His criticisms were so 
bitter and so extreme that he injured his cause. Many 
persons who were strongly opposed to the general plans of 
Congress became more lenient toward this national body 
because of Johnson's personality. Congress also brought its 
cause before the people. In the fall elections many of its 
members were returned to Washington. The Radicals 
again dominated the country. 

In order to carry out their plan, a number of office seekers 
from the North made their way into the South. In most 
instances these were unscrupulous, untrained men whose 
sole belongings could be carried in a carpetbag, and whose 
only purpose of coming into the South was to gain a good 
position under the government. They held themselves in 
office by the negro vote, and rewarded the negroes by giv- 
ing to them certain minor offices and general support. 

Freedmen's Bureau. — At this time there were es- 
tablished certain offices where unemployed and indigent 
negroes might obtain employment and support. These 
were known as the " Freedmen's Bureau." In some in- 
stances these proved a source of real help to the negroes ; 
but in many cases the aid was abused, as the negroes 
imagined that these stations of supplies were perpetual, 
that no one really needed to work, and that all that was 
necessary was to apply for food and clothing and the sup- 



RECONSTRUCTION 401 

ply would be forthcoming. Hundreds of negroes drifted 
into towns and cities where these centers were located. 
The sad result was the demoralization of the race. They 
grew idle, shiftless, became the tools of unscrupulous 
politicians, and fell into all sorts of temptations. They 
became insolent and many degenerated into criminals. 

The very promoters of the plan of aiding these needy 
people began to realize the evil effects. In the course of 
time they abandoned it and began a more reasonable and 
uplifting method of helping the negroes. 

Many generous persons gave liberally for the support of 
schools for the education of the negro, and Home Mission 
societies of various Protestant denominations in the North 
collected large sums for this purpose. 

" Carpetbag Rule." — The era that came into effect 
with the Congressional plan of reconstruction in the South 
was as direful as the war. " The Carpetbaggers," as the 
officials were called, levied and collected exorbitant taxes. 
Without regard, they sold property after property for taxes 
and brought the people into greater poverty than before. 
The moneys thus collected were squandered in the most 
reckless fashion. Bills piled up and the state debts became 
enormous. 

One of the most baneful effects of this distorted rule was 
placing of ignorant negroes in positions of trust and re- 
sponsibility. They were allowed and encouraged to occupy 
positions in the legislatures and in Congress. They served 
on police and school boards. Yet the majority of them were 
wholly illiterate and unfit to fill the most unimportant 
places. They were as reckless and extravagant as children. 
The white population grew alarmed and indignant at the 
wild paces set by these conditions. The gravity of the 
situation was increased by the fact that the militia in each 
district gave support to the offenders. 

But the negroes were not to blame for this wretched state 



402 AMERICAN HISTORY 

of affairs. For generations as slaves they had obeyed the 
dictates of the white man without question ; and, when the 
franchise was suddenly thrust upon them, they were wholly 
unprepared to assume this duty. As was their habit 
they followed blindly the advice and encouragement of 
white men. In this case their leaders seemed to be callous 
to the direful effects their methods would have on a com- 
munity of white citizens. 

Many of the negroes did not follow their new " masters," 
but remained loyal to their " white folks " and old homes ; 
and " mammy " and " uncle " remained an integral part 
of many southern households. 

Tenure-of-office Act. — In order to carry out their 
plan of military control, Congress passed an act known as 
the " Tenure-of-office Act," which prevented the President 
from removing any member of his Cabinet without the 
consent of the Senate. The object of this act was to keep 
Edwin Stanton in the office of Secretary of War, because it 
was known that Stanton was in favor of carrying out 
the plans of Congress, and through this means the 
President would be prevented from opposing the Radicals' 
policy. Johnson was not to be outwitted, and as soon as 
Congress adjourned he asked for Stanton's resignation. 
Stanton refused to resign, whereupon the President sus- 
pended him and made General Grant Secretary of War. 

Impeachment of the President. — When the next Con- 
gress met, Stanton was reinstated over the President's 
removal. Johnson, thereupon, appointed a new Secretary 
of War, General Lorenzo Thomas. Stanton was determined 
to stand by his position and Congress was willing to support 
him. He now appealed to Congress, and the House of 
Representatives impeached the President for " high mis- 
demeanors in office." The case was unusual and perhaps 
the most celebrated in the history of our country. It was 
tried before the United States Senate with the Chief 



RECONSTRUCTION 403 

Justice presiding. For two months the proceedings 
went on with the most able lawyers of the day represent- 
ing each side. The public was intensely interested. 
Finally when the decision was made, the senators voted 
individually and acquitted • Johnson. Stanton then 
resigned. 

Readmission of the States. — While these events were 
taking place, the Congressional plan of reconstruction had 
been carried out in the South. The Radicals, with the aid 
of the negro vote, were able to establish new state con- 
stitutions. Thus by the middle of 1868, Alabama, North 
and South Carolina, Florida, Arkansas, and Louisiana were 
readmitted into the Union. In all of these states negro 
rule continued as a part of the program of the Carpet- 
baggers. Their extravagance knew no bounds and the 
evils of the reconstruction period became greater and 
greater. 

Grant elected President. — In the fall of 1868 General 
Grant was elected on the Republican ticket. His popularity 
as a soldier gave him a majority of the votes, making it 
generally believed that he would be thoroughly acceptable 
to both factions of the Republican Party. The Liberals 
hoped that the new administration would succeed in 
modifying the extreme Radicalism in the South, but their 
hopes were doomed to disappointment. 

Fifteenth Amendment. — In 1869 the Fifteenth Amend- 
ment was passed, which reenforced the Radical Rule in 
the South. It forbade any state to deny the right of suffrage 
to the negro, and further, by the Force Bills, provided fines 
and imprisonment for any one who tried to prevent the 
negro from voting or tried to keep his vote from being 
counted. 

In every southern state the legislatures were still con- 
trolled by these means and the white men denied the right 
to manage the affairs of government. The extravagance 



404 AMERICAN HISTORY 

of the negroes and the Radicals was enormous. As the 
months went by they continued to increase the state debts 
until in 1872 the sum of $300,000,000 burdened the South 
besides the unpaid, unrecognized debt of the war. 

The great injury thus inflicted upon an already im- 
poverished people was unlimited in its influence. In most 
of the southern states to-day the definite effects are still 
felt. Here the advancement of public improvements, 
education, development of the natural resources of the 
country, and many other interests have been retarded and 
unfinished. 

Results of This Rule. — The situation wrought a most 
lamentable effect upon some of the negroes. They thought 
themselves too good to work, and their taste of public life 
left them with the impression that manual labor was de- 
grading. They were wholly unfit to govern themselves 
and thoroughly irresponsible in trying to govern others. 
They lost the confidence of their own people and became 
objects of contempt in the eyes of the white people. 

In contrast to this condition was the conduct of the 
negroes who remained on the plantations during the war, 
of whom Henry W. Grady, of Georgia, wrote : " History 
has no parallel to the faith kept by the negro in the South 
during the war. Often five hundred negroes to a single 
white man, and yet through these dusky throngs the women 
and children walked in safety, and the unprotected homes 
rested in peace. Unmarshaled, the black battalions moved 
patiently to the fields in the morning to feed the armies 
their idleness would have starved, and at night gathered 
anxiously at the big house to ' hear the news from marster/ 
though conscious that his victory made their chains en- 
during." 

Ku-Klux Klan. — As the insults and abuses continued 
and the overbearing conduct of the negro was increased by 
the presence of United States troops to aid and enforce 



RECONSTRUCTION 



405 



his political and civil rights, and to redress any grievance 
that he might make, the situation became desperate. At 
last the white population could stand it no longer. In 
many communities secret societies were formed for the 
protection of the South from the Radical and negro domina- 
tion. Among the most prominent of these organizations 




Assembling the Ku-Klux Klan. 

A scene taken from " The Birth of a Nation " by courtesy of the management. 



were the White Camelia Society of Louisiana and the 
Ku-Klux Klans of other southern states. These associ- 
ations restricted their membership to persons of good 
reputation, whose intentions were to establish white su- 
premacy. They became the foundation of the white Demo- 
cratic Party and steadily devoted themselves to gaining 
control of their local government. 

In the case of the Ku-Klux Klan the members were bound 
to strict secrecy. In communities where the negroes had 



406 AMERICAN HISTORY 

become particularly insolent, the Ku Klux would take ad- 
vantage of the superstitious fears of the negroes. On any 
night when the negroes were holding a meeting, some of the 
members of the Klan would suddenly appear in the room, 
clothed in sheets and wearing hideous masks of skulls 
and crossbones. In deep tones they would order the meet- 
ing to adjourn and warn the negroes to keep out of politics. 
In some instances the Klans went so far as to use violence 
and request objectionable negroes to leave the community. 

Reaction against Radicalism. — In 1870 there seemed 
to be the dawning of a better day when the Liberal Repub- 
lican Party increased in strength and many northern men 
began to realize ,the gross injustice of the Radical Party 
in trying to keep the white people of the South from 
voting. 

A convention was held in Cincinnati in 1872, at which 
the Liberals adopted a platform that denounced the Radi- 
cals for keeping up deep sectional strife in order to hold 
themselves in office and to reap the benefits for such office- 
holding. The platform further attacked the party for 
keeping the southern people from their political rights " the 
enjoyment of which is indispensable to a successful ad- 
ministration of their local affairs. " They also demanded 
the immediate removal of disabilities imposed on account 
of the war. 

Work of Greeley and Schurz. — Horace Greeley, editor 
of the New York Tribune, was nominated for President. 
Greeley had been one of the most active opponents of the 
Radical control in the South. It was largely through 
his editorials in the Tribune, as well as through the writ- 
ings of Carl Schurz in the New York Post, that the issues 
of the day were brought before the American people. 
As public opinion was thus rapidly shaped, the Radi- 
cals began losing power. At last the Liberals succeeded 
in carrying out their point for general amnesty. This 



RECONSTRUCTION 



407 



act was finally passed. By it more than 150,000 prominent 
men in the South regained their political rights. 

Grant Elected a Second 
Time. — At the same time 
that Greeley was nominated 
on the Liberal ticket, the Rad- 
cal Republicans renominated 
President U. S. Grant and 
adopted a platform indors- 
ing the government's plans in 
the South. In the follow- 
ing campaign, they openly 
denied the charges made 
against the Republican Party 
by conditions in the South. 
With their forces still well 
organized as a political ma- 
chine, they were successful 
and elected Grant for a 
second term. Greeley died shortly 
Through his death the Liberals lost 
advocate of their principles. 




Greeley. 



after the election, 
an able and active 



Topical Outline 
Reconstruction. 

I. Vice President Johnson and His Plans. 

II. Congressional Plan of Reconstruction. 

III. Fourteenth Amendment. 

IV. Freedman's Bureau. 
V. " Carpetbag " Rule. 

VI. Tenure of Office Act. 

VII. Impeachment of President. 

VIII. Readmission of the States. 

IX. Grant Elected President. 

X. Fifteenth Amendment. 

XI. Ku-Klux Klan. 

XII. Reaction against Radicalism. 



408 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Review Questions 

i. What were the plans of President Johnson in regard to re- 
organizing the Union? 

2. In what respects were President Johnson's plans for reorgan- 
izing the Union similar to the plans of President Lincoln? 

3. What did President Johnson's Amnesty Proclamation offer? 

4. What steps did the President take toward the organization of 
state governments in the South ? 

5. How did Congress regard Johnson's policies? 

6. What were the principal features of the Fourteenth Amend- 
ment? 

7. What was meant by the Freedmen's Bureau? 

8. Describe the so-called CarpetbL^ Rule in the South. 

9. (a) Give an account of the controversy between President 

Johnson and Congress. 
(b) How did this result ? 

10. Who succeeded President Johnson? What were the leading 
events of this administration ? 

11. Give an account of the reaction against Radicalism. 



References 



Linn : Horace Greeley. 
Dewey : Financial History. 
Wilson : The American People. 



CHAPTER XXV 

GRANT'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 

Downfall of Radicals. — After the defeat of the Liberals, 
the Radicals continued in office for four years more and the 
past experiences of " carpetbag " rule continued with the 
same dishonesty and offense as before. The white people 
of the South, becoming more and more disgusted, or- 
ganized themselves into a solid Democratic Party. Even 
the better class of negroes abandoned the Radical ranks 
to side with the whites. Throughout the North there 
was grave discontent against the old Republican Party. 
Many of its members then withdrew to enter the ranks 
with the Liberal faction. Still others joined the Democratic 
Party. 

At this time Massachusetts elected a Democratic gov- 
ernor. Shortly after this other northern states followed 
her lead. So great was the discontent among the members 
of the Republican Party that active opposition was made 
against the Radical policies of James G. Blaine, Speaker 
of the House of Representatives and the possible candidate 
of the Republican Party at its next nominating convention. 

Fifth Avenue Conference. — In May, 1876, an important 
meeting of distinguished northern men met in the Fifth 
Avenue Hotel in New York City and declared against 
Radicalism. They charged Blaine with fostering sectional 
antagonisms and declared that they would leave the Re- 
publican Party if Blaine were nominated for the presidency. 
The result of this meeting was the reorganization of the 

409 



4io 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Republican Party and the nomination of Rutherford B. 
Hayes, former governor of Ohio. 

The Whisky Ring. — Grant was conscientious in trying 
to hold the country under good government, but the era 
was marked by notorious frauds committed against the 
United States. Among these was the Whisky Ring. This 
was made up of a number of corrupt politicians who 
stood in favor with certain rich distillers in this country, 
and who defrauded the government out of large sums of 
money by not reporting the true quantity of whisky manu- 
factured, and thus allowing the distillers to go on manu- 
facturing large quantities of liquor without paying the re- 
quired revenue tax. In return for not reporting correctly 
on the quantity, the tax collectors were given sums of money 
as bribes. This system of grafting, as it was called, was 
discovered. Then Grant ordered that every one detected 

be brought to speedy trial 
and convicted. Over two 
hundred convictions were 
made and the offenders fined 
and imprisoned. 

Indian Troubles. — When 
the war was over the gov- 
ernment of the United States 
gave large sums of money 
and vast areas of land to 
certain railroad companies, 
provided that they would 
undertake the construction 
Sitting Bull. q £ a transcontinental road. 

This work was taken up and successfully carried on, but 
with it came some serious outbreaks of the Indians. The 
most important of these troubles was with the Sioux, 
whom the government attempted to remove from their 
lands to other reservations farther west. The Indians ob- 






GRANT'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 



411 



jected. Led by their chiefs, Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, 
and Rain-in-the-Face, they made a number of fierce pro- 
tests against removal. The government was obliged to send 
out troops to suppress the Indian outbreaks. Their most 
notable stand against the Indians was made by General 
Custer with six hundred 
men on the Little Big 
Horn River, Montana. 
Custer and all of his 
men were caught in the 
valley and within a half 
hour they were massa- 
cred by the Indians. 
Not one of their num- 
ber escaped. Later on 
General Canby suc- 
ceeded in suppressing 
the Indians and removed 
them to the reservations 
that were assigned to them. 

Great Disasters. — During this administration two great 
fires occurred that were awful in their consequences. One 
took place in Chicago, and was caused by a cow overturning 
a kerosene lamp in a stable and setting fire to the premises. 
A stiff breeze was blowing from the lake, and before the 
fire could be controlled, the flames had spread into the 
neighborhood. For two days and nights the flames raged, 
consuming all grades of property. It was estimated that 
thirty thousand houses were destroyed, two hundred mil- 
lion dollars' worth of property lost, and one hundred 
thousand persons were left homeless. 

In the following year another disastrous lire occurred 
in the city of Boston, Massachusetts. Large numbers of 
properties in the business center of the town were consumed. 
The loss of which was estimated at eighty millions of dollars. 




General Custer. 



412 AMERICAN HISTORY 

In both cities the residents began rebuilding ; and in a 
short time splendid fireproof and modern buildings took 
the place of the lost property. Better facilities for manag- 
ing fires were devised. Laws for fire prevention were also 
established in many states. 

Organization of Labor. — On Thanksgiving Day of 1859 
the garment cutters of Philadelphia met and organized the 
" Noble Order of the Knights of Labor." Their object 
was to reduce the hours of labor to eight per day and to 
secure a weekly pay day, better legislation for the protec- 
tion of laborers in factories, mines, and workshops, and 
protection of women and children's labor. Their member- 
ship was open to all trades and nationalities, both men 
and women. The movement was received throughout 
the country with cordial appreciation. Within a very few 
years the Knights of Labor numbered millions of wage 
earners. 

The organization did not form a political party, but its 
members voted with the political faction of their own choice. 
In all of the states and cities where the organization was 
formed, the members worked steadily and effectively for 
proper legislation for the working classes. The result of 
their efforts was the establishment of the United States 
Department of Labor, the organization of bureaus of 
arbitration in some of the states, and child labor laws. To 
a certain extent, they succeeded in getting the United 
States to prohibit the immigration of the Chinese. 

American Federation of Labor. — Somewhat later the 
organized trade unions in the United States planned to 
establish the American Federation of Labor. This asso- 
ciation encouraged the laboring classes to form separate 
trade-unions for the promotion and protection of their 
respective trades. This organization has not been political 
in its plans and its members have been generally conserva- 
tive in their ideas. Like the Knights of Labor, the Ameri- 



GRANT'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 413 

can Federation has been drawn into labor strikes that 
have been of serious moment in the United States. 

Great National Strikes. — After the panic of 1873, a 
number of leading railroads reduced the wages of their 
employees. This was the cause of widespread discontent. 

For some time the issues were discussed by both sides ; 
but no agreement could be reached; and a strike was 
threatened. Thousands of railway employees appealed 
to their unions. A sympathetic strike was declared in 
which many men took part. The railroads attempted to 
import laborers into the districts where the strike was on, 
in order to take the places of the strikers. This led to 
intense feeling between the railway workmen and the 
railroad managers. Riots took place in some of the cities. 
In Pittsburgh the situation became markedly serious. 
Several million dollars' worth of property was destroyed. 
Here the state and national troops were ordered out to 
restore order. 

Two years later another great strike occurred in St. 
Louis. It spread to other cities. Again all transportation 
was tied up and business interests delayed, while riots oc- 
curred, and there was considerable loss of property. The 
national troops were summoned as before, and the troubles 
suppressed with some loss of life. 

Chicago Anarchists. — In the same year, 1886, that the 
St. Louis strike occurred, the Labor Unions in Chicago 
demanded an " eight-hour day." In order to secure 
this demand thousands of men quit work, and refused 
to let others take their places. Important public meetings 
were held in various parts of the city where the working- 
men gathered and discussed their grievances. One of the 
speakers declared that the men should use force, if necessary, 
to gain their rights. His speech was so inflammatory that 
he was arrested ; and, while he was on his way to the police 
station, an anarchist threw a dynamite bomb into the crowd 



414 AMERICAN HISTORY 

and killed several persons. This act of violence was con- 
demned by the workingmen, as well as by the public. The 
unwise teachings of the anarchists, that the government and 
the laws were wrong and unjust and should be destroyed, 
were also condemned throughout the country. 

Panic of 1873. — At the close of the war there was a 
renewed interest in business. Enterprises of larger magni- 
tude were planned. Capitalists began now to organize their 
money into corporations for the purpose of making large 
deals and rapid dividends on their investments. Rail- 
roads were merged into trunk lines. Mines were con- 
solidated into extensive stock companies. Manufacturing 
interests were combined. Thus the entire country was in 
the heyday of a new business activity. 

National Debt Decreased. — While this industrial and 
financial energy was stimulating the country, the govern- 
ment decreased the national debt by taking one hundred 
million dollars of paper money out of circulation. At 
this time the value of a paper dollar had decreased until 
it was worth only seventy cents instead of one hundred. 
This depreciation was beginning to be felt, as the national 
supply of gold and silver in circulation was reduced in 187 1 
over sixty million dollars. This was because a large amount 
was taken to Europe in exchange for European goods, and 
the sale of American products in Europe did not make 
up the difference. The great fires in Chicago and Boston 
destroyed millions of dollars' worth of property. These 
fires also caused a depression in business. Many investors 
became reckless in their plans and built railroads beyond 
the needs of the population, so that great sums of money 
were going out in all directions, and there was not a cor- 
responding return. 

Financial Reaction. — ■ The consequence was that all of 
these influences brought about a rapid reaction in money 
circles. Rich firms began to fail. Many people drew their 



GRANT'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 415 

savings out of the banks to meet obligations. The banks, 
in turn, were unable to meet the urgent demands and failed. 
Numbers of factories, mines, and workshops were shut 
down because of the financial panic that fell upon the 
country. The entire United States felt this crisis. Many 
persons were thrown out of employment. Still others who 
had been accounted independently rich became im- 
poverished by the conditions. The government was 
severely criticized for its actions, and the newspapers and 
magazines called attention to the " Salary Grab " act, 
whereby the salary of the President was raised from twenty- 
five thousand dollars to fifty thousand, and Congressmen's 
salaries proportionately increased and made to date from 
the beginning of their terms. Public opinion was aroused. 
The entire administration was condemned for corruption 
in politics. 

The result was that, in the elections of 1874, the House 
of Representatives had a Democratic majority, the first 
since before the war. 

Specie Payment Act. — In 1875 Congress passed a law 
requiring the Secretary of the Treasury to pay coin for all 
paper money presented to the Treasury. This provided 
for the resumption of specie payment for the first time 
since the war. Although it meant a security to the business 
world, many persons feared that it was merely a political 
trick to secure popular favor. 

The Election of 1876. — In the election of 1876, the 
Democrats put forward Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, a 
man who had made a splendid record as the leader against 
the corrupt Tweed Ring of New York City politics. Tilden 
had many friends and his campaign against political vice 
had given him a national reputation. The Democrats 
adopted a platform calling for reforms in the tariff and civil 
service. They denounced political corruption and they 
also urged white supremacy in the South. 



4i6 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



As we have mentioned before, the Republicans selected 
Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio. They adopted a platform 
indorsing the resumption of specie payment and reforms in 
civil service. They advocated the standards of the old 
Republican Party. 

A spirited election followed that aroused the whole 
country. Many of the southern states had thrown off the 

Radical rule, and were 
in a position to take 
part in the national 
election with the same 
freedom as had existed 
before the conflict be- 
tween the states. The 
Republican forces were 
reorganized. When the 
votes were counted, Til- 
den received one hun- 
dred and eighty-four un- 
disputed electoral votes, 
and Hayes secured one 
hundred and seventy- 
two. But there were 
three states that were 
contested by both par- 
Samuel J. Tilden. ties. These were Lou- 

isiana, Florida, and 
Oregon. These votes amounted to thirteen and they were 
closely claimed by both factions. Tilden had a popular 
majority of over 250,000 votes, and many persons firmly 
believed that he was duly elected. South Carolina was 
also claimed by both factions, but later this claim was 
abandoned by the Democratic members of the Congres- 
sional investigating committee. 

The disputed question was referred to Congress. Here 




GRANT'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 417 

a deadlock ensued, as the Senate was Republican and the 
House of Representatives Democratic. The issue could 
not be settled. The debate over the election was carried 
on here with considerable bitterness. At the last it was 
referred to an electoral commission composed of five Sena- 
tors, five members of the House, and five judges of the 
United States Supreme Court. The vote stood seven to 
seven, and then Justice Bradley, who was presiding, cast 
the deciding vote in favor of Hayes. Hayes was declared 
elected by one hundred and eighty-five electoral votes 
against Tilden's one hundred and eighty-four. 

Contested State Elections. — In 1876 local elections also 
took place in some of the states, and in these the returns 
were contested. This was the case in Louisiana, where the 
Democrats, who had been joined by a number of freedmen, 
carried the state by eight thousand majority for General 
Francis T. Nicholls. The Republicans also claimed the 
elections of their candidate, L. B. Packard. For a while 
two governors and legislatures existed, each claiming to be 
legally elected. When President Hayes withdrew the 
United States troops from Louisiana, Packard, left without 
support, retired. 

In South Carolina a similar situation occurred. Through 
the efforts of the White Democratic Party under the leader- 
ship of General Wade Hampton, the complete downfall of 
the Radical rule was secured in this state. 

In 1877 white domination was secured in Florida. 

Topical Outline 

Grant's Second Administration. 
I. Downfall of Radicalism. 
II. Fifth Avenue Conference. 

III. Whisky Ring. 

IV. Indian Troubles. 

V. Chicago and Boston Fires. 
2 E 



418 AMERICAN HISTORY 

VI. Organization of Labor, 
i. Knights of Labor. 

2. American Federation. 

3. Great National Strikes. 

4. Chicago Anarchists. 
VII. Panic of 1873. 

VIII. Specie Payment Act. 
IX. Election of 1876. 
X. Contested State Elections. 



Review Questions 

1. Discuss one of the topics: Fifth Avenue Conference, Whisky- 
Ring, Custer's Last Stand. 

2. What great disasters occurred during Grant's second adminis- 
tration? 

3. Describe the organization of the Knights of Labor and the 
American Federation of Labor. 

4. Describe the great labor strikes of this time. What is the 
meaning of the term anarchist ? 

5. How was the national debt decreased? What was the Specie 
Payment Bill? 

6. Describe the election of 1876. How was the contest settled? 



References 



Wilson : Division and Reunion. 
Ford : National Problems. 
Brown : The Lower South. 



CHAPTER XXVI 



THE NEW ERA 

End of Radicalism in the South. — When President Hayes 
made his inaugural address he declared that the negro 
question should be set- 
tled by the respective 
states, and not by the 
National government. 
He declared for peace, 
denounced sectional 
animosities, and 

promptly began the 
work of removing the 
Federal troops from the 
southern states. He al- 
lowed the southern 
people to take up the 
readjustment of their 
local affairs. He en- 
couraged a better feel- 
ing between the two 

sections of the country and went so far as to appoint a 
Southern Democrat, David M. Key, Post-Master General. 
President Hayes's attitude made him many friends, but it 
also raised up a number of enemies who took advantage 
of his liberal policy and used this as an argument against 
his administration. The Republican Party became divided 
upon the question. 

419 




Rutherford B. Hayes. 



420 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Recoinage of Silver. — During these years rich silver 
mines were discovered in the West, and there immediately 
arose a demand for the coinage of silver. Congressman 
Bland, of Missouri, introduced a bill into Congress that 
required the government to coin every month, not less than 
two, or more than four, million dollars. The President 
refused to sign the Bland bill, but Congress passed it over 
his veto. During the next year, the Resumption of Specie 
Payment Act went into effect. From now on the value 
of the American paper money was fixed at one hundred 
cents on the dollar. It has become a perfectly secure 
medium of money. The credit of the United States govern- 
ment was also strengthened so that it can borrow all the 
money it desires at a low rate of interest. 

Election of President Garfield. — In 1880 General James 
A. Garfield, of Ohio, and Chester A. Arthur, of New York, 
were elected on the Republican ticket, and the Republican 
Party also gained control of the House of Representatives. 
Garfield was only in office a short time, when he was assas- 
sinated by Charles Guiteau, a disappointed office seeker. 
The President lingered for three months with the entire 
country watching with great sympathy and concern for 
his recovery; but he died on September 19, 1881, at Long 
Branch, New Jersey. His death was deeply regretted. 
He was a man above reproach. The people had believed 
that his administration would be wise and successful. 
Garfield was succeeded by Vice President Arthur. 

Civil Service Reform Bill. — There had been a general 
demand for a reform in political appointment, and 
the death of President Garfield emphasized more than 
ever the need to change the " Spoils System," the Jack- 
sonian method of appointing members of the President's 
political party. In 1883 Senator Pendleton, a Democrat 
from Ohio, introduced a bill creating a Civil Service Com- 
mission whose duty it was to provide examinations for 



THE NEW ERA 



421 



those applicants desiring positions under the United States 
government. The act at first applied only to a few posi- 
tions, but as time has demanded, the number has increased, 
and to-day the Civil Service law applies to almost all of 
the minor positions under the government. It has been a 
great success in many instances. It has also improved the 
general service of the government. Its popularity has also 
increased all over this country. At present many cities 
and states have adopted 
local laws based upon the 
same principle. 

Other Reform Meas- 
ures. — A number of 
other reform measures 
were passed by Congress 
during Arthur's adminis- 
tration. Among these 
were an act prohibiting 
polygamy in the United 
States, an act prohibit- 
ing Chinese laborers from 
coming into the United 
States for a period of ten 
years, and a bill provid- 
ing a reduction in post- 
age from three cents to 
two on ordinary letters and reduction of one cent for 
post cards. In 1883 the railroads adopted " Standard 
Time." By this system the country was divided into 
sections of fifteen degrees of longitude, which means an 
hour's difference in time in each section. The divisions 
were known as Eastern, Central, Western, and Moun- 
tain. When it is nine o'clock in the Eastern division, it 
is eight in the Central, seven in the Western, and six in the 
Mountain. 




Chester A. Arthur. 



422 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Cleveland's Administration. — In the campaign of i\ 
the Republicans nominated James G. Blaine, and Senator 
John A. Logan, of Illinois. Blaine had been Speaker of the 
House of Representatives for three terms and had gained 
a good support from the Radical Republican Party, but the 
Prohibition issue became important in many states at this 

time, and the Repub- 
lican ranks were di- 
vided on this issue. 
The Prohibition Party 
put forward John P. 
St. John, of Kansas, 
on their ticket. Then 
another faction of the 
Republican Party 
known as the Greenback 
Party named Benj. F. 
Butler, of Massachu- 
setts, as their candi- 
date. The Democrats 
nominated Grover 
Cleveland, of New 
York, and Thomas A. 
Hendricks, of Indiana. 

The main issue of 
the campaign was the 
tariff. So thoroughly 
was this question discussed from every standpoint by 
press and campaign speakers that this campaign has be- 
come known in history as the " Educational campaign." 
Cleveland was now elected . For the first time in twenty- 
five years the Democrats went back into office. It was a 
period of most active legislation when many important 
measures were brought before Congress during Cleveland's 
administration, Among these was a law arranging the 




Grover Cleveland. 



THE NEW ERA 423 

Presidential succession in case both the President and Vice 
President could not serve. The arrangement by the new 
law was first the Secretary of State, and then the other 
members of the Cabinet in the order of the creation of 
their offices. 

Interstate Commerce Commission. — Another law of 
great value to the public was a provision for the establish- 
ment of an Interstate Commerce Commission, appointed 
by the President of the United States. This was to have 
power to investigate all charges brought before it as to the 
regulation of passenger and freight rates between states, 
and the question of unjust discrimination between persons 
and rates ; that is, to keep the railroads from favoring one 
state or a person and overcharging another. This law has 
given uniform freight and passenger rates in the country 
and has granted to towns and cities uniform facilities 
above those that were formerly granted. To-day the 
Commission has even greater problems and more perplexing 
details of legislation to regulate, but each year the system 
of service seems greater than before. 

Immigration Laws. — During the Civil War an act was 
passed allowing American agents to go abroad and secure 
foreign laborers under contract and to arrange for their 
transportation to this country. Many overcrowded Euro- 
pean cities yielded up their surplus population under these 
circumstances. Within the next twenty years thousands 
of Italians, Poles, Hungarians, and Swedes were imported 
into this country to work on the construction of railroads. 
Other countries also furnished large numbers of laborers. 
The result was that many persons in the United States 
began to realize the danger of the great increase of foreign 
population, many of whom were ignorant, poor, and in 
many instances of the criminal class. As labor began to 
grow cheaper, the American laborers discovered that 
they were being underpaid because of this large foreign 



424 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



population. There were many sides to the question that 
appealed to the American people, such as social, political, 
and industrial problems that were bound to come up if 
something were not done to restrict the unlimited immi- 
gration. 

In 1875 an act was passed forbidding the importation 
of Chinese laborers. And in 1882 the Passengers Act ex- 
cluded " convicts, lunatics, idiots, or any person unable to 
care for himself or herself without becoming a public 

charge." This act did 
much to relieve the 
strain on our prisons, 
asylums, and alms- 
houses. In 1885 an- 
other act was passed 
which also restricted im- 
migration. Now from 
time to time the ques- 
tion is brought to the 
attention of Congress 
for improved legislation. 
Tariff Revision. — At 
the close of Cleveland's 
administration the gov- 
ernment had paid all of 
the national debt and 
there was now a sur- 
plus in the treasury. 
The question arose as to what should be done with the sur- 
plus. There had been many suggestions about its distribu- 
tion, but the President favored a reduction of the tariff which 
would lessen the income of the United States but at the 
same time would benefit the general public by reducing the 
cost of living. A bill was introduced in Congress for the 
reduction of the tariff, but it was defeated and the tariff 




Benjamin Harrison. 



THE NEW ERA 



425 



question again became the important issue in the next 
presidential campaign. 

Harrison Elected. — The Democrats renominated Cleve- 
land for a second term of office and the Republicans named 
Benjamin Harrison from Indiana at the head of their 
ticket. The Prohibitionists nominated Clinton B. Fiske, of 
New Jersey, and two labor parties were formed which also 
placed candidates in nomination. 

Cleveland had lost political ground during his adminis- 
tration as he had not favored the Democrats but had placed 
a number of Republicans in office. The Republicans were 
not in favor of his low-tariff measures. Many of the 
Civil War veterans were also against him because he had 
vetoed several pension bills that they were particularly 
anxious to secure. 

Harrison was the grandson of William Henry Harrison. 
Many of his followers attempted to repeat the Tippe- 
canoe campaign of 1840. Harrison won a majority of the 
electoral votes, but Cleveland secured a majority of the 
popular votes. 

HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 

Pan-American Congress. — There was a feeling among 
the Americans that we should have a larger share of 
foreign trade, especially that of the South American 
countries. In order to try to secure this trade, James G. 
Blaine recommended to the President that we should have 
an understanding with the South American countries in 
regard to the future trade relations. Accordingly a con- 
ference was arranged to meet in Washington, to which 
delegates from all of the American states were invited. 
This was known as the Pan-American Congress. 

One of the questions brought up was the status of the 
independence of each of the Central and South American 



426 AMERICAN HISTORY 

states and an agreement that all differences between these 
states should be settled by arbitration and not by war. 
It was, however, difficult to solve the trade problem. 
The American tariff stood in the way of open trade and 
was always in competition with the free trade of Great 
Britain and other European nations. We were not so well 
equipped with merchant marine as other nations, and 
hence lacked the capacity for carrying trade. The Con- 
gress ended with very cordial friendship on the part of the 
several states represented. 

McKinley Tariff. — One of the results of this Congress 
was the passage of a new tariff act known as the McKinley 
Bill. An important feature of this act was the Reciprocity 
Agreement. This gave the President the power to make 
reciprocity agreements with other nations. That is, if 
foreign nations would agree to reduce certain tariffs on our 
goods, then we would agree to do the same. One of the 
new proposals was the removal of the tax on imported 
sugar. 

Protests against the McKinley Bill. — Among those that 
protested against this act were the cane growers of Louisiana 
and the beetroot farmers of the Middle West. They con- 
tended that if the tariff were removed from sugar they 
should not be able to compete with the sugar industry of 
the West Indies and other tropical countries. The com- 
pensation for the reduction on sugar was made by giving 
the sugar planters a bounty of two cents per pound, and the 
government became the only loser by the act. The bill 
was very complicated and proved unpopular. The net 
result of the measure was that the Treasury instead of 
having a surplus now sustained a deficit. 

Farmers' Alliance. — The farmers of the West were par- 
ticularly discontented ; when there was no increased market 
for their products and the price of wheat fell from eighty 
cents a bushel in 1890 to forty-nine in 1894, and other 



THE NEW ERA 427 

farm products in proportion, the farmers organized the 
Farmers' Alliance. With them joined all the forces of the 
Labor Party, with the result that the next election found 
a new party created from this combination and known as 
the People's Party. 

Sherman Act. — ■ During Harrison's administration a bill 
was introduced into Congress by Senator John Sherman, 
which amended the Bland Silver Act by providing that the 
government should buy four million five hundred thousand 
ounces of silver each month, keep it in the Treasury, and 
issue paper money to that amount. 

Cleveland Reelected. — The People's Party came for- 
ward with many features in its platform. Among the 
most important were : 

First, the free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold at a ratio of 
sixteen to one. 

Second, an income tax ; that is, any person whose income was more 
than four thousand dollars should pay a tax on it. 

Third, the national ownership of railroads, telegraphs, and similar 
interests. 

Fourth, the lending of money by the government to citizens at two 
per cent on the security of certain farm products. 

Fifth, the issuing of money by the government alone, and not 
banks. 

They selected as their candidate General James B. 
Weaver. The Democrats nominated Cleveland for the 
third time and named Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois for 
Vice President. 

The Republicans renominated Benjamin Harrison as 
their candidate. The election returns were in favor of 
Cleveland, and his second term of office began. 



Topical Outline 
The New Era. 

I. Removal of Troops from the South. 
II. Recoinage of Silver. 



428 AMERICAN HISTORY 

III. Election of President Garfield. 

IV. Assassination of the President. 
V. Reform Measures : 

i. Civil Service. 

2. Reduced Postal Rates. 

3. Adoption of Standard Time. 
VI. Cleveland Elected. 

VII. Interstate Commerce Commission. 

VIII. Immigration Laws. 

IX. Tariff Revision. 

X. Harrison Elected. 

XL Pan-American Congress. 

XII. McKinley Tariff. 

XIII. Farmers' Alliance. 

XIV. Sherman Act. 
XV. People's Party. 

XVI. Cleveland Reelected. 

Review Questions 

1. Why was President Hayes's administration called a new era? 

2. What was meant by the recoinage of silver? 

3. Under what circumstances was President Garfield killed? Who 
was his successor ? 

4. What was the Civil Service Reform Bill? 

5. What other reform measures were adopted at this time? 

6. What party came into power when Cleveland was elected? 

7. Discuss one of these topics : Interstate Commerce Commission, 
Immigration Laws, Tariff Revision. 

8. Who succeeded Cleveland? 

9. What was the Pan-American Congress? How did this Con- 
gress influence tariff legislation ? 

10. What were the principles indorsed by the People's Party? 

References 

Ford : National Problems. 

Dewey : Financial History. 

Taussig : Tariff History. 

Hadley : Railroad Transportation. 

Wright : Industrial History of United States. 

Bogart : Economic History of United States. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
NATIONAL PROBLEMS 

Panic of 1893. — Between the years 1873 and 1893 there 
were important discoveries of silver in the West. The 
output of this metal was so great that the market price of 
silver went down all over the world. The government of 
the United States had continued its purchases of silver, and 
the coinage of silver brought this money into wider circula- 
tion. There was a feeling of uncertainty lest the silver 
dollar might now depreciate in value. Many persons began 
to fear the consequences. Just at this time, European 
banks and business firms refused all money except gold. 
Many of these recalled certain loans that they had made 
in the United States, and demanded gold in return. 

Financial Flurry. — Suddenly there was a distrust in 
business circles. Numbers of persons began to make de- 
mand upon the government to exchange their paper money 
for gold. This depleted the amount of gold. A feeling of 
alarm spread over the country lest the United States would 
pay in silver instead of gold. 

Overproduction of Wheat and Corn. — While this flurry 
was taking place in financial circles, there was an over- 
production of wheat and corn in the country and prices 
decreased. On the farm and in the city conditions grew 
desperate. Men lost confidence in their investments. 
Business grew stagnant, mills and factories were inactive, 
and hard times began. Banks and business houses were 
unable to meet their obligations and failed. Many people 

429 



430 AMERICAN HISTORY 

were thrown out of employment and great distress filled 
the land. 

Dissension over Sherman Act. — President Cleveland 
called an extra session of Congress. An attempt was then 
made to repeal the Sherman Act. There were many stirring 
debates on the subject. The People's Party bitterly op- 
posed the repeal of the Sherman Act and they were joined 
by the Congressmen from the silver-mining states. The 
price of silver continued to fall, adding greatly to the depres- 
sion in business. A Bimetallic League was formed in 
some of the states. The object of this league was to urge 
the free coinage of silver and to support the Sherman Law. 

Sherman Law Repealed. — This movement failed. The 
Sherman Act was repealed 1893. But this did not remedy 
conditions of hard times. In its endeavor to readjust 
business prosperity Congress turned its attention to a 
revision of the tariff. 

Wilson Bill. — Congressman Wilson of West Virginia 
presented a bill which reduced the tariff. It was thought 
that this would make the cost of living less. In order 
to secure sufficient funds to run the expenses of government, 
a special feature of the bill provided for a tax upon all 
incomes above four thousand dollars. This feature of 
the bill was declared unconstitutional and was discontinued. 
In the course of time, the revenues were not sufficient to 
meet the needs of the government. 

Labor Strikes. — Thousands of persons were thrown out 
of employment by the panic of 1893. A number of these 
formed themselves into an " army of the unemployed." 
Led by their leaders they prepared to march to Washington 
to demand aid peaceably from the government. This 
and other similar movements were but indications of the 
unrest of the times. The labor situation resulted in two 
great strikes that involved many workmen. One took 
place in western Pennsylvania where upward of two him- 






NATIONAL PROBLEMS 43 1 

dred thousand coal miners stopped work because of cer- 
tain reductions in their wages. Many factories were closed 
because of lack of fuel. Once again great distress filled 
these communities where the unemployed suffered from 
poverty. This strike lasted several months and riots and 
bloodshed were experienced before it was ended. 

Another strike occurred in 1894 when the employees of 
the Pullman Car Company near Chicago refused to work 
because of objectionable terms. These workmen were 
members of the American Railway Union, one of the larg- 
est trade-unions in the country. Their officers, represented 
by Eugene V. Debs, President of the National Union, 
offered to take up the matter with the Pullman Company 
in order to arbitrate the question. The Pullman Company 
refused to consider the offer on the grounds that they had 
nothing to arbitrate. After further consideration, Presi- 
dent Debs ordered a general or " sympathetic " strike of 
the employees of the railway companies. All of the rail- 
roads handling the Pullman cars were involved in the strike. 
The transfer of passengers and freight was stopped along 
many lines of travel. There was such serious interference 
with the distribution of the United States mail that. the 
President ordered United States troops to Chicago where 
a number of lives were lost in the conflicts between the 
strikers and the troops before the strike was " called off." 

FOREIGN RELATIONS 

Monroe Doctrine Reasserted. — In 1895 the United 
States was called upon to reassert the Monroe Doctrine. 
The English settlers in British Guiana had extended their 
plantation interests into the district of Venezuela. The 
government of Venezuela felt alarmed at the movements of 
the British, and asked England to remove from this territory. 
England asserted her right to the control of this territory, 



432 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Then Venezuela asked that the matter be referred to a 
board of arbitration. England refused to arbitrate and 
sent a fleet to the Venezuela coast to assert her claims. 

The United States intervened by opposing England's 
right to extend her claim in South America. When England 
refused to withdraw her fleet, President Cleveland sent 
a message to Congress in defense of Venezuela's claim and 
declared his intention of definitely asserting the Monroe 
Doctrine. The position of the United States caused intense 
excitement in America and England. Arbitration was 
finally secured, and England withdrew her control from the 
disputed area. 

Bering Sea Controversy. — For many years there was a 
dispute between the United States and Great Britain in 
regard to the control by the United States of the seal 
fisheries in Bering Sea. This industry had become very 
extensive. There was serious fear as to the utter destruc- 
tion of these animals. The United States attempted to 
regulate the seal catching and sent vessels into the Bering 
Sea to capture vessels that violated these regulations. 
Some of the boats captured belonged to the English. As 
Great Britain protested against this interference, the matter 
was referred to a board of arbitration. This decided that the 
United States had no right to control the Bering Sea region. 
The commissioners, however, fixed certain regulations for 
the protection of the seals that were to be observed by both 
countries. 

The Mafia in New Orleans. — During the year 1890 a 
number of crimes were committed among the Italian colo- 
nists in New Orleans. The origin and cause of these crimes, 
as well as the perpetrators, were very difficult to trace, as 
much of the work was supposed to have been committed 
under cover of an Italian secret society, called the Mafia. 
David C. Hennessey, chief of the police in the city of 
New Orleans, was untiring in his efforts to ferret out the 



NATIONAL PROBLEMS 433 

wrongdoers and restore peace and confidence among the 
distressed Italians who were constantly threatened by so- 
called " black-hand letters." On the night of October 15, 
1890, Chief Hennessey, walking on one of the streets of 
New Orleans, was shot by several assailants who suddenly 
disappeared before they could be identified. Twelve Ital- 
ians were indicted for direct or indirect complicity in the 
murder. These were brought to trial and nine of them were 
tried separately. The jury failed to convict the prisoners. 
The verdict was openly condemned in New Orleans ; here a 
meeting of citizens was called ; and, in the light of the many 
outrages that had been committed, the assembly determined 
that the law should be vindicated. At an appointed hour 
a large crowd assembled and proceeded to the parish prison, 
forced an entrance, and shot the accused. 

The Italian minister at Washington took up the question 
on the ground that some of the slain were Italian citizens. 
A long investigation and correspondence followed in which 
the relations between the United States and Italy were 
almost severed. A formal declaration of regret on the part 
of the United States was made, and an indemnity of twenty- 
five thousand dollars was paid by our government to be 
divided among the families of those who had been killed. 
Friendly relations between the United States and Italy 
were restored and have existed ever since. 

Topical Outline 

National Problems. 
I. Panic of 1893. 
II. Sherman Law Repealed. 

III. Wilson Bill. 

IV. Labor Strikes. 

V. Foreign Relations. 

1. Monroe Doctrine Reasserted. 

2. Bering Sea Controversy. 

3. Negotiations with Italy. 



434 AMERICAN HISTORY 



Review Questions 

i. What were the causes of the panic of 1893 ? 

2. What effect did the panic have on business? 

3. W T hat effect did it have on laboring people? 

4. What labor difficulties followed the panic? Why did they 
follow ? 

5. How was the tariff regulated during Cleveland's second ad- 
ministration ? 

6. What led President Cleveland to reassert the Monroe Doctrine ? 

7. How was the difficulty with England in the Venezuela case 
settled? 

8. What was the Bering Sea controversy? How was it settled ? 

9. What negotiations were carried on at this time with Italy? 
10. How was the Mafia society case settled? 



References 

Curtis : United States and Foreign Powers. 
Dewey : Financial History. 
Hart : Contemporaries, Vol. IV. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
ERA OF EXPANSION 

The Election of 1896. — The presidential election of 
1896 was one of widespread interest both at home and 
abroad. The crisis of 1893, the discontent among the 
American laboring classes, the overproduction of the farms, 
and the attitude of foreign nations toward our financial 
system, all brought out the keenest criticism and most 
vigorous determination to right conditions. One of the 
active discussions centered on the issue of adopting a new 
standard of currency. This was known in the campaign 
meetings as the Silver Question. 

The regular Republican Party advocated a gold stand- 
ard on the basis that this was the accepted rule in most of 
the countries and that our international trade demanded 
that we preserve the uniformity of this standard. 

The Democrats declared that there was European con- 
trol over our financial system and urged independence from 
foreign banking interests that could, without notice, work 
havoc upon our business and national enterprises. It was 
asserted that silver was a reliable, convenient metal for 
the constant exchange to which money was subject, and 
that the Democratic Party advocated the free and unlimited 
coinage of silver on the basis of sixteen to one. 

There were many subtle arguments for and against both 
sides of the question. In the course of these events there 
was a split in both the Republican and Democratic parties 
over the issue. Those of the Republican Party favoring the 

435 



436 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



gold standard nominated William McKinley of Ohio. The 
Democrats favoring the free coinage of silver named Wil- 
liam Jennings Bryan of Nebraska on their ticket. The 
" Silver Republicans," as they were called, joined the Demo- 
crats. Now the " Gold 
Democrats " adopted 
another platform and 
nominated John M. 
Palmer of Illinois and 
Simon B. Buckner of 
Kentucky as their can- 
didates. The People's 
Party supported Bryan, 
but named Thomas E. 
Watson of Georgia as 
their candidate for Vice 
President. After an ex- 
citing campaign, re- 
nowned for the spirited 
speeches on both sides, 
McKinley was elected 
and the gold standard 
was adopted (1897). 

Dingley Tariff.— 
Shortly after his inau- 
guration, President McKinley called an extra session of 
Congress to consider the revival of a protective tariff. 
In 1897 the Wilson Bill was repealed and the Dingley 
tariff adopted. This raised the tariff rate higher than it 
had been for a number of years. 




William McKinley. 



WAR WITH SPAIN 

Spain's Loss of Her Colonies. — While the United States 
was growing into an important nation, with widespread 



ERA OF EXPANSION 437 

interests throughout the world, the influence of Spain was 
declining. This began in America with the loss of first 
one and then another of her Central and South American 
colonies. As early as 1823 Spain had lost all of her exten- 
sive possessions in the West, until finally she was reduced 
to the limited ownership of Cuba, Porto Rico, and a few 
small islands in the West Indies. These were often in a 
state of revolt over the harsh laws that were frequently 
enforced. 

Cuban Misgovernment. — In 1895 Spain's government 
of Cuba became excessively tyrannical. It was almost 
military in character, and the loss of civil privileges as well 
as the unjust taxation aroused the Cubans to another re- 
volt. Spain sent General Weyler to Cuba to suppress this 
insurrection. Weyler was most cruel in his plans. He 
ordered thousands of innocent Cubans into military camps 
where he could easily control them. But it was not long 
before disease broke out in these crowded and unsanitary 
quarters where men, women, and children were poorly fed 
and scantily clad. These unhappy people suffered untold 
hardships. Many of them died under the treatment. 

This concentration system also had a serious effect upon 
the economic conditions of Cuba ; for many plantations and 
farms were crippled by the loss of laborers, and famine 
threatened the inhabitants. 

America's Step to alleviate Cuban Distress. — The dis- 
tress continued until finally the American press brought 
the matter to the attention of the public through graphic 
descriptions and photographs of the camps and the vic- 
tims. The whole world was forced through the defense of 
humanity to interfere. At first the President of the United 
States offered to arbitrate between Cuba and Spain, but 
the latter refused, and rumors went abroad that the United 
States was planning to annex Cuba. American property 
was threatened. The inhumanitv to the Cubans continued 



438 AMERICAN HISTORY 

for some time until Congress, upon the recommendation of 
President McKinley, appropriated fifty thousand dollars 
to relieve the distress in the concentration camps. Many 
private subscriptions were made by American citizens ; 
and members of the American Red Cross Society, led by 
Miss Clara Barton, entered the fever-stricken camps and 
rendered timely service to the suffering people. 

Recall of Weyler. — After earnest protestations from 
America, Spain recalled Weyler and promised some reforms, 
provided the Cubans would lay down their arms and submit 
to Spanish rule. But the Cubans were determined to accept 
nothing less than independence. 

Destruction of the Maine. — While the struggle went 
on, the American battleship Maine was sent to Cuba to 
watch over our interests. On February 15, 1898, the whole 
United States was shocked by the news that the Maine 
had been blown up in the harbor of Havana, and that two 
hundred and sixty of the crew had perished. There was 
no clew to the perpetration of the deed, but all America 
was fired by the thought that it was the work of a Spanish 
submarine mine. Immediately the slogan of " Remember 
the Maine " was taken up in every quarter. President 
McKinley ordered an investigaion ; and, before the commis- 
sion could make a report, Congress made an appropriation 
of fifty million dollars for military purposes. They further 
declared that the independence of Cuba should be assured, 
and granted the President authority to use the United States 
navy and army to assist the Cubans in their struggle. 

Spain withdrew her minister from the United States, 
and gave the American minister his passport. This meant 
a declaration of war. 

Military Arrangements. — War was now declared, and 
Congress planned to borrow two hundred million dollars 
and voted to raise other amounts by a revenue stamp act. 
The President called for two hundred and fifty thousand 



ERA OF EXPANSION 



439 



volunteers. This call was answered by more men than 
could be used . Special defenses were made along the Ameri- 
can coast ; and one squadron was placed along the eastern 
defense and another sent to blockade Cuba, while a third 
was sent to operate in the Pacific. 

Battle of Manila. — Before regular preparations were 
made for war, Commodore George Dewey, in command of 

the Pacific 
squadron off the 
coast of China, 
was ordered to 
leave Hongkong 
and proceed to 
the Philippines. 
On Sunday, May 
i, 1898, Dewey 
sailed into Ma- 
nila Bay at day- 
light, and began 
bombarding the 
Spanish fleet 
guarding the bay. In less than 
four hours he completely destroyed 
the enemy's fleet and silenced the 
shore batteries at Cavite without 
losing a man and with but eight 
wounded. The Spaniards lost several hundred men, and 
their entire fleet was disabled. Dewey's victory was hailed 
with great delight. The government now advanced him to 
the rank of Admiral. Dewey then blockaded the city of 
Manila and waited for the arrival of land forces under 
General Merritt before taking the city. 

Blockade of Santiago. — Although the island of Cuba 
was carefully watched by Admiral Sampson and Commo- 
dore Schley, yet a Spanish fleet under Cervera managed 




The Philippine Islands. 



440 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



to slip by and to enter the harbor of Santiago. When this 
was discovered, an attempt was made by Lieutenant Hob- 
son to bottle Cervera's fleet in the harbor so as to render 
it useless in the general defense of Cuba. Six men were 
elected from a long list of volunteers to assist Hobson in 
his perilous task. His plan was to take the coaling vessel 
Merrimac into the narrow entrance of the harbor and to 




The Harbor of Manila. 



sink it so that the harbor would be closed. It was a most 
dangerous undertaking, as Hobson and his men were exposed 
to heavy fire from the Spanish batteries when they slipped 
into position. The Merrimac was sunk, but instead of 
sinking laterally, so as to blockade the harbor, it sank in 
such a position as to allow room enough in the narrow en- 
trance of the harbor for the Spanish fleet to slip out. Hob- 
son and his men were captured by the Spaniards, but were 
kindly treated by Cervera and his officers, who praised 
them for their daring. 
Battle of Santiago. — General Shafter decided to attack 



ERA OF EXPANSION 44 1 

Santiago from the rear, so he landed on the southern coast 
of the island and marched with an army of sixteen thou- 
sand troops toward the city. The approach was made by 
ascending two hills, San Juan and El Caney. These were 
fortified by blockhouses from which the Spanish fired. 
The Americans dashed forward, made a splendid assault, 
and carried the position with little loss of life. It was in 




Blockading Squadron 



Fleet \j 






■A I.I. 



The Santiago Campaign. 

this attack that Colonel Theodore Roosevelt and his com- 
pany of " Rough Riders " won fame by their daring ride 
up the hill. 

Cervera Defeated. — Realizing that Santiago could not 
be aided from the bay, Cervera made a dash for the open 
sea in order to escape capture. He raised full steam and 
sailed out of the harbor at highest speed, only to be met by 
Commodore Schley, who was watching the bay. Again 
the Americans were singularly successful. In this defeat 
Spain lost six war vessels and upward of six hundred lives, 
as well as twelve hundred men as prisoners. The Ameri- 
cans lost one man and had three wounded, and their 
ships were comparatively uninjured. Both Dewey's and 



442 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Schley's victories gave evidence of the first-class condition 
of the American fleet and the accurate marksmanship of 
the American gunners. 

Surrender of Santiago and Manila. — Shortly after the 
battle of San Juan Hill the city of Santiago surrendered. 
At about the same time the city of Manila was invested 
by the Americans. 

Porto Rico Surrenders. — The island of Porto Rico 
was also in a state of revolution. As soon as General Miles 
landed an American army on the island, the troops were 
welcomed by the Porto Ricans and the island surrendered 
without difficulty. 

Treaty of Peace. — The treaty of peace was signed in 
Paris on December 10, 1898. By its terms Spain agreed 
to recognize the independence of Cuba and cede to the 
United States the islands of Porto Rico, Guam (one of the 
Ladrones), and the Philippines. In recompense, the United 
States should pay Spain the amount of twenty million 
dollars. The United States was also to assume the pro- 
tectorate over Cuba until the island could secure a stable 
government. It was further stipulated that the inhabit- 
ants of the new possessions should be guaranteed religious 
freedom, and that their political rights should be deter- 
mined by Congress. 

Effects of the War. — The national debt was increased 
many million dollars and the expense of keeping a larger 
army and navy was incurred, besides the large expenditure 
necessary to establish and maintain forms of government 
in the newly acquired possessions. By the treaty, the 
United States gained a vast amount of insular territory. 
The Philippines alone numbered upward of fifteen hun- 
dred islands. We were brought into a new and strange 
experience ; namely, the control of colonies and the gov- 
ernment of thousands of foreign people living miles away 
from the central power. The population of these new 



ERA OF EXPANSION 443 

possessions were not only alien races, but they were entirely 
unacquainted with American manners, language, customs, 
and government. It required a heavy expense as well as 
far-sighted statesmanship to bring these people under a 
realization of the possibilities of the protection of the 
United States. Rebellions were to be faced and suppressed, 
American ideals were to be developed, and the relations 
of other nations to the possessions were to be reckoned 
upon. 

Advantages of Expansion. — The newly acquired terri- 
tory gave us a permanent place in the West Indian and 
Oriental trade and laid the foundation for a world-wide 
commerce that gave an impetus to the expansion of home 
industries. The new lands gave the United States an oppor- 
tunity to establish the liberal ideas of a republican form of 
government where despotism had prevailed. The plan of 
expansion gave a larger privilege for the spread of free 
education and the extension of Christianity among ignorant 
and heathen people. The achievements of the American 
army and navy secured for us the respect of all nations. 
Our prompt restoration of the independence of Cuba 
gained for us the confidence and good will of European 
nations who had looked with doubt upon the sincerity of 
our purposes in the beginning of the war. 

Annexation of Hawaii. — Among the other possessions 
that we secured during the Spanish-American War were 
the Hawaiian Islands. These islands lie out in the Pacific, 
midway between the United States and the Orient, and 
have a Malay population of upward of two hundred and fifty 
thousand. For some years the government of the island 
was in the hands of Queen Liliuokalani, who brought her 
people forward in civilization and gave to them a good 
administration of government, but she and her ministers 
were determined to exclude foreigners from political control. 

At this time a number of Americans who had settled on 



444 AMERICAN HISTORY 

the islands had invested in large and lucrative estates. As 
permanent residents and taxpayers, these people claimed the 
right to political privileges. In 1893 a new constitution 
was adopted in Hawaii that excluded foreigners from 
political advantages. This caused much discontent and 
revolts in which the Americans took part. With the 
aid of the United States minister, and assistance from an 
American war vessel, the party succeeded in establishing 





( - . .;•>.-.*> 




i|Hn^ : ~ v "* m ^ ^^BH9 HEBpn 




i=, r . ' ''- 


^^H^' £g^** \ 




'.HBPjfe-. Sfe^": *JiH 



The Government Building, Honolulu. 
Taken at the time of annexation. 

an independent government, and asked the United States 
to annex Hawaii. 

President Harrison sent a message to Congress recom- 
mending the annexation. But before action was taken 
President Cleveland was inaugurated, and he withdrew the 
treaty of annexation from Congress. From time to time 
the political interests of the island were in a state of unrest. 
Finally, in President McKinley's administration, another 



ERA OF EXPANSION 445 

petition was presented for annexation, and the United States 
accepted the terms and annexed these possessions during 
the Spanish-American War. 

Hawaiian Islands. — The Hawaiian Islands form a 
splendid naval base in the Pacific and are of great advan- 
tage as coaling stations. Honolulu is the chief city, and 
has an excellent harbor. The islands produce sugar, rice, 
bananas, pineapples, and wool. Many Americans have 
removed to the islands. The white population there is 
rapidly increasing. A territorial government was organ- 
ized by the United States in 1900. Besides these insular 
possessions, the United States owns one of the Samoan 
group, and also Wake Island in the Pacific. 

Insurrections in the Philippines. — After the Americans 
had taken control of the Philippines, the inhabitants of 
Luzon, led by General Aguinaldo, demanded their inde- 
pendence. This was refused. A revolt was then started 
which was partly suppressed by General Otis. The Filipino 
forces, organized in small bands, continued to carry on 
guerrilla warfare, causing untold annoyance to the Ameri- 
cans. At last Aguinaldo, the leader of these forces, was 
captured. This greatly weakened the plans of the in- 
surgents. 

Philippines. — The control of the Philippines was diffi- 
cult, as the Americans were unacquainted with the geog- 
raphy of the country, and the insurrections continued to 
break out in unexpected quarters. This necessitated the 
continuance of a regular army in the Philippines and caused 
much criticism of the policy of this administration. 

Government and Education in the Islands. — Shortly 
after the treaty of peace was signed, President McKinley 
sent a commission to the Philippines for the purpose of 
planning a satisfactory government for this new posses- 
sion. Judge William H. Taft, President of the Com- 
mission, was made governor of the islands, and was given 



446 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



a staff of assistants who formed a cabinet to govern the 
country. 

Military rule was set aside in many places as soon as 
possible, and regular civil government established. The 
new government also gave the right of citizenship to all 
male persons over twenty-one who could use the English 
or Spanish language and who owned two hundred and fifty 

dollars' worth of prop- 
erty or paid taxes 
amounting to fifteen 
dollars. 

The new government 
also established a sys- 
tem of public schools 
and several normal 
schools for the training 
of native teachers. 
Good roads were built, 
and experimental sta- 
tions established for the 
promotion of greater 
skill in agriculture. 

Campaign of 1900. — 
In the presidential cam- 
paign of 1900 the Re- 
publicans nominated 
President McKinley for 
a second term, with Theodore Roosevelt, governor of New 
York, as Vice President. The party adopted a platform 
indorsing the gold standard. They advocated the policy of 
imperialism ; that is, the extension and control of our for- 
eign possessions and the construction of an interoceanic 
canal. 

The Democrats renominated Bryan and named former 
Vice President Stevenson for Vice President. The Demo- 




A Filipixo Girl. 



ERA OF EXPANSION 447 

crats again endorsed the free coinage of silver. They also 
advocated the independence of Porto Rico and the con- 
struction of the Isthmian canal. 

The Prohibition and Socialist Parties also entered candi- 
dates in the race. 

President McKinley was elected by a larger majority 
than he had received in the last election. He entered his 
new term with the promise of a fortunate administration. 

Assassination of President McKinley. — During the 
first year of McKinley's second administration the Pan- 
American Exposition was held at Buffalo, New York. Here 
while he was attending the fair on " President's Day," the 
President was brutally murdered by a young foreign anar- 
chist, named Leon Czolgosz. The unfortunate act was 
committed in the presence of thousands of persons who 
thronged the fair grounds on the occasion of the President's 
visit. 

President McKinley lingered for a week and then suc- 
cumbed to the fatal wound on September 14, 1901. This 
was the third time that a President of the United States 
had fallen a victim to an assassin. Throughout his admin- 
istration, President McKinley had acted with great sin- 
cerity and careful judgment, and his death was deemed a 
serious loss to the country. All over the land there was 
a demand for severe punishment for such a crime, and an 
earnest effort was made to teach greater loyalty to the 
government and to denounce the principles of anarchy. 

Topical Outline 

Era of Expansion. 

I. Election of 1896. 
II. Administration of William McKinley. 

III. Dingley Tariff. 

IV. War with Spain. 
1. Causes. 

a. Spain's Loss of Her Colonies. 



448 AMERICAN HISTORY 

b. Cuba Misgoverned. 

c. Americans Attempt to Alleviate Cuba. 
2. Events. 

a. Destruction of the Maine. 

b. Battle of Manila. 

c. Blockade of Santiago. 

d. Battle of Santiago. 

e. Cervera Defeated. 

/. Surrender of Santiago and Porto Rico. 
g. Treaty of Peace. 
V. Effects of the War. 
VI. Annexation of Hawaii. 
VII. Control of the Philippines. 
VIII. Political Campaign of 1900. 
IX. Assassination of President McKinley. 

Review Questions 

1. What was one of the important issues before the American 
people in 1896? Explain. Who was elected at this time? 

2. What were the causes of the War with Spain? 

3. State briefly the American military plans. 

4. Locate the island of Cuba, the Philippines. 

5. Describe the battle of Manila, the blockade of Santiago. 

6. What did the United States gain by this war with Spain? 

7. State the general effects of the war. 

8. What is meant by the terms expansion and imperialism? 

9. Under what circumstances was Hawaii annexed ? 

10. Was there any opposition to the American occupation of the 
Philippines ? 

11. What methods did the United States use to organize and 
govern these islands? 

12. Give an account of the assassination of President McKinley. 

References 

Coolidge : The United States as a World Power. 

Churman : Philippine Affairs. 

Foster : American Diplomacy in the Orient. 

Latane : America as a World Power. 

Brooks : War with Spain. 

McClay : United States Navy, Vol. III. 

Mahan : Lessons of the War with Spain. 



CHAPTER XXIX 



NEW PLANS 



The Roosevelt Policies. — Upon the death of President 
McKinley, Vice President Roosevelt took the oath of office 
and proceeded with the affairs of national government. 
This administration was 
marked by several im- 
portant movements in 
the development of 
American life. The new 
President took a perso- 
nal interest in all the 
social and economic 
questions of the day as 
well as in actively guid- 
ing the domestic and for- 
eign political interests of 
the nation. As a soldier 
in the Spanish- American 
war, an official in New 
York state government, 
and a man of letters, 
Roosevelt had many 
friends and admirers. 
He came into office 

with the good will of the American people, and his adminis- 
tration was destined to be marked by certain legislation 
that had long been needed. 




Theodore Roosevelt. 



2G 



449 



450 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Pennsylvania Strike and Arbitration. — One of the first 
issues that occupied the attention of the President was the 
great strike that occurred among the miners in the anthra- 
cite coal regions of Pennsylvania. The strike was of grave 
concern to the workingmen of America and was led by 
John Mitchell, one of the most eminent labor leaders in 
the country. The struggle had been marked by unusual 
bitterness and severe suffering, and the delay in furnish- 
ing coal to the industrial world bade fair to produce a fam- 
ine in fuel. The President, without any legal right to 
do so, intervened in the situation and appointed a special 
commission on arbitration that succeeded in adjusting the 
differences. The strike was abandoned and work was 
resumed. 

Antitrust Legislation. — Within recent times the mer- 
cantile world has experienced many changes in methods of 
carrying on business. Instead of many individuals pro- 
moting the same industry, there has developed the tend- 
ency to merge all the individual holdings into one big 
company or corporation. While this plan has succeeded 
in producing a larger output of the articles needed, devised 
better grades of workmanship, and secured larger distribu- 
tion of the goods, yet this system has made possible the 
accumulation of enormous wealth by the successful cor- 
porations, has limited the expansion of personal effort 
and in many instances secured control of the entire market 
for its goods. In this way it has . manipulated wages of 
workers and prices of goods to suit circumstances. This 
monopoly plan caused great discontent among our people. 
For months magazines and newspapers conducted dis- 
cussions of all phases of the subject with the hope that some 
solution of the problem could be obtained. 

One of the most popular reforms of the Roosevelt ad- 
ministration was the passage and enforcement of certain 
laws limiting the organization of business interests which 



NEW PLANS 



451 



menaced the general open market and " cornered goods " 
so as to control the price. This movement was known as 
the antitrust legislation and to the American people it 
seemed like a deliverance from an aristocracy of wealthy 
corporations. The movement prevented the merging of 
railroads, as well as other large corporation interests, and 
required that all corporations doing interstate business 
should be open to government inspection. 

Panama Canal. — As early as the discovery of the Pacific 
by Balboa, the Spanish government considered the idea of 
constructing a canal across the Isthmus of Panama in order 
to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Four differ- 
ent routes were in turn proposed, but, owing to certain 
opposition to the project, they were abandoned. As years 
went by various European nations were seized with the idea 
of taking up the plan of canal building in Central America, 
but each time the scheme proved unsuccessful. 

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. — The United States from time 
to time had also considered the idea of constructing an 
interoceanic canal, and various surveys were made; but 
definite plans did not take shape until after the discovery 
of gold in California, and the advisability of a shorter route 
to the Pacific coast became a pertinent issue. Two routes 
were in consideration, one across the state of Nicaragua, 
and the other across the Isthmus of Panama. About this 
time England was also contemplating the same work and 
this country and the United States formed an agreement 
known as the Clayton-Bulwer treaty (1850) providing 
that, whichever route was selected and whichever nation 
undertook the work, both England and the United States 
should control it jointly. 

It was not long after this that the United States became 
involved in the issues that led to the Civil War, and for a 
number of years the canal question was dropped. 

French Work on the Panama Canal. — In the meantime, 



452 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



the government of France authorized the organization of 
an interoceanic canal company. This company was 
headed by Ferdinand de Lesseps, who had recently success- 
fully completed the Suez Canal. The French company 
selected the Isthmus of Panama as the more desirable 
location and began work. President Hayes was deeply 
concerned over the plans of the French and sent a message 
to Congress urging immediate action. The President 
declared that he deemed the control of this canal by a 
foreign power to be a menace to the peace and safety of 
the United States. But no action was taken by the Ameri- 
can people, and for 
some time the matter 
was set aside. In the 
course of time, the De 
Lesseps company be- 
came bankrupt and 
abandoned work. Dur- 
ing the Spanish- Ameri- 
can war an imperative 
need for this water route 
was developed. Pres- 
ident McKinley was 
considering this matter 
at the time of his death 
(September, 1901). 

Hay-Pauncef ote 
Treaty. — In Novem- 
ber, 1 901, the United 
States was able to negotiate another treaty with England 
which took the place of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty. 
By this new agreement, which was known as the Hay- 
Pauncef ote treaty, England gave up all right to a part 
management of the canal. 

Another problem that had to be solved was the French 




John W. Hay. 



NEW PLANS 



453 



claim. After special negotiations, the United States paid 
$40,000,000 to the French company for their claims. 
Thereupon our government began arrangements for secur- 
ing a site. 

The Panama Treaty. — The republic of Panama had 
just secured its independence from Colombia, when the 
United States recognized it as a separate nation, and shortly 




A Portion of the Panama Canal. 



after made a treaty, purchasing all property rights to a. 
strip of land ten miles wide and extending from sea to sea. 
While there was some criticism of this treaty on the ground 
that it savored of the violation of the Monroe Doctrine, 
no definite opposition was made to the negotiations. It 
was generally conceded that it was expedient for the United 
States to undertake the canal building. Large appro- 
priations of money were made by Congress for the con- 
struction of the canal, and this stupendous piece of engineer- 
ing work was begun. 



454 AMERICAN HISTORY 

The United States went to great expense to protect its 
workmen from exposure to malarial and yellow fevers and 
to furnish comfortable and sanitary homes to all connected 
with the enterprise. The work was completed in 19 14 and 
put into regular operation in the following year. By this 
new water route the distance from New York to San Fran- 
cisco was reduced more than seven thousand miles, and the 
distance from New Orleans to San Francisco several thou- 
sand miles, while in the same proportion the distance from 
European ports was greatly reduced. 

Reelection of President Roosevelt. — In the presiden- 
tial election of 1904, Theodore Roosevelt was reelected 
and he entered upon his new administration with greater 
energy than ever in his efforts to carry out his party's 
plans and policies. Among the important laws passed 
during this administration were the Elkins Act, which abol- 
ished rebating, a system whereby favored shippers were 
given the advantage over other patrons of certain railroads ; 
and the Pure Food Law, which was passed to protect the 
public against the purchase of adulterated foods, and which 
required labels to be placed on all goods, showing the per- 
centage of adulteration. Large appropriations were made 
to conserve the American forests. Congress thereupon 
established a national Bureau of Forestry for the protec- 
tion and extension of our timber resources. 

Vast sums of money were also used in the irrigation of 
arid deserts of the West, and similar amounts were set apart 
to build levees in the overflow districts. Both of these 
latter expenditures have resulted in the development of 
large areas that have become the means of extensive pros- 
perity in our country. 

Treaty of Portsmouth. — In 1905 President Roosevelt 
tendered the services of the United States to Russia and 
Japan to arbitrate between these two nations who were at 
war in the Orient. Both belligerents accepted the offer 



NEW PLANS 



455 



and sent envoys to America. The meeting was held at 
Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and peace terms, which 
ended the Russo-Japanese struggle, were satisfactorily 
arranged. 

Taft elected President. — In the campaign of 1908 the 
Democrats again placed William J. Bryan at the head of 
their ticket and the Re- 
publicans selected Wil- 
liam H. Taft, of Ohio, 
as their choice. It was 
a hotly contested cam- 
paign in which Presi- 
dent Roosevelt strongly 
supported the Repub- 
lican candidate. Taft 
was elected, and the Re- 
publican policies contin- 
ued to dominate the 
country. Bryan had 
openly declared that the 
Republicans had taken 
the Democrats' policies 
and adopted and fur- 
thered them during 
Roosevelt's administra- 
tion. Be this as it may, the country was still anxious for 
further reforms. Among these was a revision of the tariff. 

Payne- Aldrich Bill. — The Payne- Aldrich Bill which was 
presented at this time was violently opposed by many who 
felt that this act did not reduce the duties as much as they 
should be reduced. In spite of the opposition of his faction 
of the Republican Party, Taft signed this bill, and it be- 
came a law. A feature of this law was the Corporation 
Tax, which laid an annual tax of one per cent on the earn- 
ings of all corporations. 




William H. Taft. 



45^ 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Champ Clark Speaker of the House. — In 1 910 the Con- 
gressional elections returned a majority of Democrats to 
the House of Representatives. This faction succeeded 
in electing as their Speaker Champ Clark, of Missouri. 
This was the beginning of the strength of the Democratic 

Party, who were des- 
tined to gain control of 
the government in the 
next election. 

During Taft's admin- 
istration two arbitration 
treaties were signed. 
One was with England 
and the other was with 
France. They were 
practically identical and 
" resolved that no fu- 
ture difference shall be 
a cause of hostilities be- 
tween them or interrupt 
their good relations and 
friendship ; " in other 
words, that they would 
submit their differences to arbitration instead of going to war. 
Arizona and New Mexico Admitted. — In 191 1 two new 
states were admitted to the Union. These were Arizona 
and New Mexico. With these admissions the United 
States now numbered forty-eight. 

Federal Judiciary. — In 1911 the task of appointing 
certain judges to the United States Supreme Court fell 
upon President Taft. With absolute freedom from party 
feelings, the President made his choice, selecting men 
irrespective of party affiliation. Among the appointments 
was the promotion of Edward D. White, of Louisiana, to be 
supreme justice. 




Champ Clark. 



NEW PLANS 



457 



Election of 1912. — In the campaign of 191 2 there was 
a definite split in the Republican Party, and one of the fac- 
tions, commonly known as the " Insurgents," took the 
name of " Progressives " and nominated as their candidate 
former President Roosevelt ; the other faction of the party 
continued under the name of Republican and named Taft 
as their choice. The Democrats selected Governor Wood- 




The United States Supreme Court. 
The Chief Justice, Edward D. White, stands in the center at the back. 

row Wilson, of New Jersey, as their candidate. The cam- 
paign now began with activity. Governor Wilson had been 
former President of Princeton University ; and in his brief 
career as governor of New Jersey he had won renown for 
his fearless denunciation of corruption in politics and also 
for his strong opposition to vice. The Democrats adopted 
a platform advocating a reduction of the tariff, urged the 
adoption of a law providing for an income tax, and advo- 
cated the election of senators by popular vote instead of 
selection by state legislature. The party went on record 
as urging further legislation against trusts and advocated 
exemption from tolls of American ships passing through the 
Panama Canal. 



458 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Wilson Elected. — In November, 191 2, Woodrow Wil- 
son was elected by a vote of 435. Roosevelt received 88 
votes ; and Taft, 8. 



WILSON'S ADMINISTRATION 

Inauguration of the President. — On March 4, 1913, 
President Wilson was inaugurated with unusual enthusiasm. 




© Undericood and Underwood. 

President Wilson taking the Oath of Office. 

With the advent of a southerner in office came the feeling 
to many that the old era of sectionalism had entirely passed 
away, and that the American people were facing an epoch 
of larger national union than had been experienced before. 
The North and West had given generous support to the 
President in his election. With this support came an 
abiding confidence and trust in his management of the 
nation's destinies. 

Instead of sending a written message to Congress, the 



NEW PLANS 



459 



President appeared before a joint session of both houses 
and read to them his policies for the year. This custom 
had not been used for more than a century. In its revival 
came the significance of bringing to the personal attention 
of the members of Congress the aims and purposes of the 
new administration. Mr. Wilson had been for years a 
close student of Amer- 
ican institutions and 
economics. As he as- 
sumed the responsibility 
of administering the gov- 
ernment, he determined 
to recommend certain 
modifications of existing 
laws as might promote 
the larger welfare of the 
American people. One 
of the first plans that 
came into effect was the 
revision of the tariff sys- 
tem. 

Underwood Tariff Bill. 
— The work of revis- 
ing the tariff law was 

taken up by Senator Oscar L. Underwood of Alabama. 
Under his direction a number of changes were made in 
the law that lowered the duties on many imports. Al- 
though the bill injured some of the manufacturing inter- 
ests of the country, yet upon the whole it was deemed 
the means of aiding in reducing the high cost of living. 
It was passed by Congress and duly signed by the 
President. 

Regional Banks. — In 1907 another business panic 
occurred that called to mind the need for reforms in our 
banking laws. In the next year Congress appointed a 




Oscar L. Underwood. 



460 AMERICAN HISTORY 

national Monetary Commission to investigate the work- 
ing of the existing currency and banking laws. About 
this time President Taft suggested that one of the needs 
of the country was a central bank of issue which he thought 
" might automatically regulate the supply and distribu- 
tion of the currency and thus prevent such a crisis as that 
of 1907." Many leading bankers throughout the United 
States believed that such a bank would aid materially in 
relieving the financial strain that usually came at certain 
periods of the year, as for example the moving of crops, 
etc. 

When the Monetary Commission made its report through 
its chairman, Senator Nelson Aldrich, it recommended 
that " a National Reserve Association or Central Bank 
with fiscal relations to the national government, and com- 
posed of representatives from smaller but similar district 
associations, would assist in avoiding financial crisis." 
Some of the recommendations of this commission have 
been adopted and incorporated in a banking law that pro- 
vides for a central reserve bank and several regional banks 
to be located centrally in various districts of the United 
States. 

Parcel Post. — One of the most helpful means of assist- 
ing the general public has come through the establishment 
of the Parcel Post. This is an adjunct of our postal serv- 
ice that enables persons to send packages at greatly reduced 
rates and guarantees speedy delivery of same. This inno- 
vation has been highly appreciated by the American people, 
and its possibilities are being exploited daily. One of the 
most interesting features has been its use in the " farm 
to table " service by which farmers are enabled to send to 
town patrons fresh products from the farm without using 
the intermediate system of commission merchants, jobbers, 
and retailers, and without the losses incurred through slow 
delivery of perishable goods. 



NEW PLAXS 461 

Foreign Relations. — Owing to the great conflicts exist- 
ing in other parts of the world, this administration has been 
brought into many diplomatic relations with foreign coun- 
tries. Mr. Wilson's policy has been along the line of strict 
neutrality, and as certain complications have arisen over 
commercial interests, there has been a firm and discreet 
investigation and adjustment of these delicate international 
problems. 

Topical Outline 
New Plans. 

I. Roosevelt Policies. 
II. Pennsylvania Strike and Arbitration. 

III. Antitrust Legislation. 

IV. Panama Canal. 

V. Clay ton-B ill wer Treaty. 
VI. Hay-Pauncefote Treaty. 
VII. Reelection of Roosevelt. 
VIII. Reforms: 

1. Pure Food Laws. 

2. Protection of Forests. 

3. Irrigation of Western Lands. 

4. Opposition to Trusts. 
IX. Treaty of Portsmouth. 

X. Election of William H. Taft. 

XL Payne-Aldrich Bill. 

XII. Champ Clark, Speaker of the House. 

XIII. Arizona and New Mexico Admitted. 

XIV. Federal Judiciary. 
XV. Election of 191 2. 

XVI. Wilson's Administration. 
XVII. Underwood Tariff Bill. 
XVHI. Regional Banks. 
XIX. Parcel Post. 
XX. Foreign Relations. 

Review Questions 

1. Note the principal plans of President Roosevelt. 

2. What action did President Roosevelt take in the Pennsyl- 
vania Strike? 



462 AMERICAN HISTORY 

3. How was that strike settled ? 

4. What is meant by antitrust legislation? 

5. Why was this legislation started ? 

6. Give an account of the building of the Panama Canal. 

7. What international treaties were arranged in order to secure 
control of this construction ? 

8. What work had been done on this canal by the French? 

9. What company had charge of the work of the French ? 

10. Who was the French engineer in charge of the company? 

1 1 . Who succeeded President Roosevelt ? 

12. Who became Speaker of the House of Representatives in 1910? 

13. Give a brief account of the election in 191 2. 

14. What are the leading events of President Wilson's administra- 
tion? 

15. What is meant by the Regional Banks? Parcel Post? 



References 

Dewey : National Problems. 

Mitchell : Organized Labor. 

Elliot : American Contribution to Civilization. 

Johnson : Four Centuries of the Panama Canal. 



CHAPTER XXX 
STRENGTH OF THE AMERICAN NATION 

Disasters and their Effects. — Like other countries of 
the world, the United States has suffered from serious dis- 
asters that have wrought severe havoc and suffering in the 
country. We shall mention some of these unfortunate 
events and call to mind the ways and means used by the 
American people to remedy the direful conditions that 
have been produced by these unexpected calamities. 

Fatal Diseases : Yellow Fever. — For a number of years 
the seacoast cities, particularly those in the South, suf- 
fered from epidemics of yellow fever. This disease was 
exceedingly fatal in 1878, when New Orleans and many 
cities on the gulf coast were stricken by this malady. 
Every effort was made to control the disease, but with 
little effect. It was firmly believed that this malady was 
imported from Central and South America, where it con- 
stantly prevailed. 

Finally it was decided to establish a strict national quar- 
antine service among the coast towns where only local 
quarantine had existed. By this system all vessels from 
fever-ridden ports were detained for a sufficient number of 
days to ascertain if there were any signs of the disease 
among the incoming passengers and crew. This system 
proved so effective that for many years the situation has 
been controlled. This rule was also enforced in regard 
to other diseases and has proved a timely benefit to the 
United States. 

463 



464 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Public Health Service. — In order to further the work of 
protecting the health of the country, the United States 
has organized a department known as the Public Health 
Service. Eminent surgeons and physicians as well as 
expert chemists are employed in this division of the national 
government. This Service has done a vast amount of 

good by making 
close investigation 
of the causes of dis- 
ease, and has fur- 
nished remedies to 
heal and means to 
eradicate many mal- 
adies. 

Dr. William 
Gorgas. — Among 
the most eminent of 
the United States 
surgeons that have 
been successful in 
this field of work is 
Dr. William Gorgas, 
who discovered that 
the stegomyia mos- 
quito transmitted 
the germ of yellow 
fever. Dr. Gorgas 
made his tests in 
Central and South America under the most heroic circum- 
stances ; and finally, after a series of patient and courageous 
experiments, he gave his report to the United States. The 
government in turn transmitted this report to all parts of 
the United States and foreign countries. Then regular cam- 
paigns were begun in some of the Central and South Ameri- 
can countries to try to eradicate the disease by exterminat- 




William Gorgas. 



STRENGTH OF THE AMERICAN NATION 465 

ing the mosquito. It was largely through the efforts of Dr. 
Gorgas that the safe construction of the Panama Canal was 
made possible ; for the district of Panama was frequently 
affected with yellow fever of a type so malignant that 
alien workmen were often stricken. It was estimated 
that one foreign workman of every five died of this pesti- 
lence when the Panama railroad was in construction. Dr. 
Gorgas instituted a campaign against the mosquito and 
adopted against the disease methods of protection which 
were so effective that it was not long before all danger 
from infection had passed. 

Bubonic Plague. — When it was discovered that rats 
were largely responsible for the extension of the bubonic 
plague, the United States Health Service took up this 
work and has vigorously guarded against this terrible 
disease. To-day active work in rat proofing is carried on 
in all parts of the country, and signs of pestilence are 
watched, so that the public health can be safely cared for. 

The work of the Public Health Service has attracted wide- 
spread attention, and many private citizens have aided by 
establishing special hospitals and foundations for further 
aid. Among the most noted of these movements are the 
Rockefeller and Russell Sage foundations, whose work is 
fast becoming world renowned. One of the most liberal 
lessons that we can learn from history is the law of cooper- 
ation in trying to help our Health Service keep our cities 
and countryside sweet, clean, and wholesome. 

Earthquakes. — Within the past thirty years the United 
States has been visited by two disastrous earthquakes. 
One occurred in the city of Charleston, South Carolina, 
in August, 1886, and the other in San Francisco, in April, 
1906. The first took place at night and came without 
warning. The inhabitants were suddenly alarmed by 
houses shaking and falling. The earth was torn apart; 
and from deep cracks, streams of hot mud and sand were 



466 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



thrown out. The destruction was widespread, and public 
buildings, private property, and railroads were completely 
demolished. A number of persons were killed and scores 
were rendered homeless. The people of the entire country 
sympathized deeply with this stricken district, and large 
sums of money were collected and sent to Charleston to 
relieve the suffering. 

The earthquake in San Francisco was even more disas- 
trous. This, too, came without warning and occurred 




Union Square, San Francisco. One of the Scenes of the Earthquake. 

at about daylight. The damage included the loss of hun- 
dreds of lives and the destruction of more than one third 
of the important business districts of the city. To add to 
the horror, fires broke out in different parts of the city; 
and as the water mains were all rendered useless by the 
earthquake, it was utterly impossible for the fire depart- 
ment to render aid. Thousands of persons were rendered 



STRENGTH OF THE AMERICAN NATION 467 

homeless and had to be accommodated in tents in the parks 
of the city. 

Congress made a special appropriation to assist the sur- 
vivors, and help from all parts of the United States poured 
in to aid the unfortunate people. Shortly after the dis- 
aster, the remaining population returned to the scene of 
confusion and began to rebuild their city with even greater 
faith than before. To-day all signs of the disaster have 
been removed, and San Francisco stands as one of the most 
attractive and modern of our American cities. 

Severe Floods. — One of the most unfortunate disasters 
occurred at Johnstown, Pennsylvania, on May 31, 1889. 
During the early spring unusually heavy rains fell and 
rilled the mountain streams until they became surging 
torrents. At this time a heavy rain occurred and increased 
the volume of water in a reservoir north of Johnstown until 
the dam broke and the entire flood, at the rate of two and 
a half miles per minute, dashed down the valley. The 
volume of water was. fifty feet high and it spread out 
half a mile wide. As it surged through the valley, trees, 
bridges, locomotives, mills, and villages were swept on. 
When the crest of the flood struck Johnstown, the entire 
city was nearly demolished. More than two thousand 
lives were lost and ten million dollars' worth of property 
was destroyed. This terrible destruction cast a gloom all 
over the country, and again the whole nation hastened to 
render aid to those in affliction. 

Galveston Tidal Wave. — Even greater than this flood 
was the terrible tornado that struck the city of Galveston, 
Texas, on September 8, 1900. Located on a low shallow 
island, the city was but a few feet above sea level ; and when 
the terrific storm surged across the Gulf of Mexico, the 
waves rose far above the high- water mark and swept over 
the island, quickly submerging the town under a disastrous 
flood. Seven thousand lives were lost and seventeen mil- 



468 AMERICAN HISTORY 

lion dollars' worth of property was destroyed. Surgeons 
and Red Cross nurses hurried to the scene of devastation, 
and aid was supplied as speedily as possible. Entire families 
were lost, and many children were separated from their 
parents. The distress was of the most intense character. 
The national government sent special aid, and in the 
course of time Congress made a liberal appropriation to 
build an immense sea wall on the gulf side of the island. 
Within this wall Galveston has been rebuilt with all modern 
improvements, and the people have placed greater confi- 
dence than ever in their city. 

Other Disasters from Floods. — Within recent years 
severe damage from floods has been experienced in the 
Ohio and Mississippi valleys as well as along tributary 
streams. Each year an enormous volume of water rushes 
down these valleys, often in excess of the carrying capacity 
of the streams. It is believed that this unusual condition 
has been caused by the improved drainage systems in cities, 
which carry off the rainfall more rapidly than formerly 
when much of the water was absorbed by the unpaved 
city streets. Another cause mentioned is the destruction 
of vast forest areas which were formerly natural means of 
consumption of this water supply. 

The problem of prevention of disasters by floods and 
overflows has become so vexed that Congress has been 
concerned with new remedies besides the construction of 
large levees or embankments to hold the onrushing tor- 
rents within the banks. One of the means recently 
suggested is the construction of reservoirs that shall hold 
the surplus water and a system of connecting irrigat- 
ing canals that can be used to conduct this surplus water 
to dry and arid regions that could be reclaimed by irri- 
gation. 

Among the members of Congress most active in the inter- 
est of these projects have been Senator Joseph E. Ransdell, 



STRENGTH OF THE AMERICAN NATION 469 

president of the Rivers and Harbors Commission, Senator 
Humphreys, and Senator Newlands. 

The Newlands bill especially referred to the conserva- 
tion of the water supply. 

Although such projects entail great expense, yet the 
government may some day see its way to put into effect 
some plan for more complete prevention of floods. 

Storm Signal Service. — In order to aid the coast towns, 
the United States government has established along the 
shores a series of storm signal stations. Here expert 
scientists watch the signs of the weather and send out in 
advance weather reports to warn seamen of an oncoming 
storm. Special signals are also raised to serve as warn- 
ings, and as a result thousands of people prepare and 
seek places of safety. 

The Mississippi Jetties. — Among the greatest of the 
national government projects for improving water ways 
was the establishment of a jetty system at the mouth of the 
Mississippi River. For many years the delta of the Missis- 
sippi River was often so choked with debris and sand that 
it was impossible for ocean-going vessels to make a safe 
entrance into the main stream. This condition had often 
perplexed mariners, and, as early as 1722, a French engineer, 
named Pauger, suggested a plan whereby the channel of 
the river at its mouth could be deepened. The idea was 
not carried out until 1874, when James B. Eads, a United 
States civil engineer, submitted a plan for a jetty system. 
These jetties were to be built in the South Pass of the delta, 
and to consist of heavy piling driven into the banks and a 
channel dredged out so as to force the swift current through 
this pass. In this way the current forced the debris out 
into the gulf, and a clear entrance was secured sufficient 
in depth to accommodate the largest ocean-going ves- 
sel. It took four years to complete the jetties, and the 
cos.t was more than six million dollars. The expenditure 



470 AMERICAN HISTORY 

has amply paid for itself, as through this port great vessels 
from all parts of the world are able to secure the output 
of productions from the Mississippi Valley. 



ARBITRATION AND THE PEACE CONFERENCE 

Although the history of the world has been marked by 
many pages recording bloody conflicts between nations, 
yet there have been earnest efforts to settle international 
disputes by peaceful measures rather than by force of arms. 

The United States has led in this work of arbitration, and 
during the century of its diplomatic relations with other 
countries more than one hundred and fifty cases of disagree- 
ment have been settled by candid investigation and peace- 
ful adjustment ; as, for instance, the Oregon Boundary, 
the Alabama Claims, the Bering Sea Controversy. 

In 1872, a Peace Conference was held in Paris, where the 
military code then in use was somewhat improved. At 
this time there was an agreement that all springs and 
streams furnishing drinking water were to be protected, 
that there should be careful consideration for the Red Cross 
Service on the battle field, that brass and rough-edged 
bullets should not be used. These measures were prac- 
tically adopted by many nations, although they continued 
their plans for active defense. 

In 1899 the Czar of Russia called a meeting of delegates 
from all parts of the world to consider forming an inter- 
national Peace Conference. The meeting was held at The 
Hague and plans were discussed to form a permanent move- 
ment to do away with the horrors of war. Suggestions were 
made, but nothing definite was accomplished in arranging 
for permanent peace. But the delegates returned home 
and told of the work proposed, and newspapers, magazines, 
social and civic associations took up the work and began 
the plan of educating the public to desire world-wide peace. 



STRENGTH OF THE AMERICAN NATION 471 

Unfortunately differences arose between nations and the 
peace movement was not strong enough to prevail, and 
again the disputes were settled by warfare. 

Later, greater efforts were made to further the work of 
arbitration and the International Conciliation Association 
was formed, whose purpose is to work toward educating 
the world to consider thoughtfully the plan of inter- 
national arbitration. The American branch of this Asso- 
ciation publishes many pamphlets on international ques- 
tions and widely distributes these with the view to giving 
the American people a fair and just view of these issues, 
and " to arouse the interest of the American people in the 
progress of the movement for promoting international 
peace . . . and good fellowship between nations." 

Andrew Carnegie, a philanthropist of nation-wide repu- 
tation, has been deeply interested in this work, and, within 
recent years, has given a million and a half dollars for the 
erection of a magnificent " peace palace " at The Hague in 
which the Peace Tribunal holds its regular meetings. 

There is no question of greater importance to us than 
this splendid movement for international peace, and every 
effort should be made to aid in promoting and advocating 
this work. 



Topical Outline 

Strength of the American Nation. 
I. Disasters and their Effects : 

1. Fatal Diseases, Yellow Fever, the Work of Dr. William 

Gorgas. 

2. Bubonic Plague. Public Health Service. 

3. Earthquakes. 

4. Severe Floods. 

5. Storm Signal Service. 
II. The Mississippi Jetties. 

III. Arbitration and the Peace Conference. 



472 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Review Questions 

i. What efforts have been made by the United States to prevent 
the development and spread of disease? 

2. What is meant by the public health service? What should 
be the duty of every citizen toward this service ? 

3. Tell something of the work of Dr. William Gorgas. 

4. Mention some of the severe disasters that have occurred in the 
United States in recent years. 

5. How have the American people met these calamities? 

6. Why were the Mississippi jetties built? 

7. Give an account of the efforts made to secure international 
peace. 



CHAPTER XXXI 
A CENTURY OF INVENTIONS 

Inventions. — The nineteenth century stands out as 
remarkable in the number and success of labor-saving ma- 
chines that were invented during this era. All over the 
world new and clever devices were made to aid in reducing 
manual labor and to help mankind in the promotion of 
larger and more comfortable living. The United States 
took the lead in the number and importance of the inven- 
tions that were made, and the history of the country was 
enriched by the effects of these devices upon the develop- 
ment of our nation. 

McCormick Reaper. — For centuries the grain crops of 
the world were harvested with the small hand sickle. This 
work was slow and tiresome and required many laborers 
to harvest a crop. In the beginning of the century a tool 
called a " cradle " was invented. This consisted of several 
blades that were attached to a long handle like a scythe, 
which cut a larger amount of grain than the sickle. For 
some time this was considered a great advantage over the 
sickle and many of these implements were put into use. 

The man who was destined to revolutionize harvesting 
tools was Cyrus Hall McCormick, who was born in Virginia 
on February 15, 1809. McCormick was reared on a farm, 
and at the age of twenty-one he invented two valuable plows. 
In 183 1, after several years of experimenting, he invented 
a practical reaping machine which he improved and pat- 
ented a few years later. In 1847 ne removed to Chicago 

473 



474 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



and there built large works for the construction of his 
reaping machines. The new harvesters were a splendid 
success. They cut many times the amount of grain that 
could be harvested by hand and so economized labor that 
vast areas of western lands were rapidly put under culti- 
vation. McCormick exhibited his invention at various 




The Combine. 
A combined harvester-thresher. 



international fairs, where he received numerous prizes and 
honors. Since the first invention many improvements 
have been added, and to-day the modern machines not only 
cut but bind the grain. 

Within recent years a steam threshing machine was in- 
vented that could be operated in the fields. This supple- 
mented the work of the reaper and was the means of increas- 
ing the grain production of the United States many fold. 
Both of these machines are also used in the harvesting of 
rice, and to-day they are found in all civilized grain-pro- 
ducing countries. 

Within recent years still other labor-saving farm imple- 
ments have been invented, such as the steam plow, the 
automatic seeder, and the steam harrow. 



A CENTURY OF INVENTIONS 475 

Sugar Machinery. — In the southern sugar districts new 
methods have been introduced in the manufacture of sugar. 
Among these is the " Centrifugal process." This process 
consists in pouring the cane sirup into huge vessels that are 
rapidly turned by steam power. The rapid turning of these 
vessels granulates the sugar. 

Another important invention in this manufacture is the 
" bagasse burner." Bagasse is the name given to the 
stalks of cane after the juice has been extracted from them. 
In times past, quantities of this refuse would accumulate 
about the cane rollers and require constant labor to remove 
it. Now a furnace has been invented in which the bagasse 
can be burned, and the waste is not only consumed, but it 
becomes valuable fuel for generating the steam that runs 
the machinery of the sugar house. 

The Cotton Gin and Press. — The invention of a ma- 
chine to separate the cotton seed from the lint, which 
was made by Eli Whitney in 1793, has continued in use 
until the present day. Although steam and electric 
power are now used to operate the large cotton gins, 
the principles of the invention have varied but little since 
earlier times. 

As early as 1816 a successful cotton press was made for 
the purpose of compressing raw cotton into smaller bales. 
To-day this system has been so successfully developed that 
thousands of pounds of cotton are easily stored on ships 
and trains when formerly the bulky bales afforded less 
opportunity for transportation of this product. 

Sewing Machine. — Sewing machines of small size had 
been in use in many countries for years, but none of these 
was a success because the stitch was a loose chain stitch 
that did not hold the cloth firmly. In 1846 Elias Howe, 
of Massachusetts, invented a machine that made a close 
lock stitch. This was done by placing the eye of the needle 
in the flattened point. The shuttle was then adjusted to 



476 AMERICAN HISTORY 

catch the short thread and knot it securely. This stitch 
was firmer and the seam more permanent than hand sewing. 
From time to time other devices have been added to the 
machine until to-day all grades and variety of sewing, from 
the simple seam to elaborate hemstitching and embroidery, 
are made. Within recent years electric power has been 
used to operate many of the sewing machines in garment 
factories. 

Vulcanized Rubber. — One of the most valuable dis- 
coveries of modern times is the process of hardening India 
rubber so that it will stand extreme heat and not melt 
or crack. This process was discovered in 1839 by Charles 
Goodyear, of New Haven, Connecticut. After five years 
of careful experimenting, Goodyear found a process of 
hardening rubber by treating it with sulphur. This is 
known as vulcanizing. Goodyear received special prizes 
at the large international expositions where he exhibited 
many useful articles made by this new rubber process. 
Goodyear lived to see his discovery applied to more than 
five hundred uses. To-day vulcanized rubber has world- 
wide use, not the least of its uses' being vulcanized tires for 
automobiles and roofing for buildings. 

Automobiles. — Another invention of world-wide fame 
is the automobile run by electric or gasoline motor power. 
As early as 1680 Sir Isaac Newton proposed a carriage to 
be propelled by steam, and from this time until 1884 many 
models for such vehicles were made. At last a practical 
demonstration of an automobile was made by a German 
inventor, and later models were introduced by other inven- 
tors that were more perfect in their plans. The idea has 
become so popular that the automobile is fast taking the 
place of horse-drawn vehicles. It is estimated that in 
191 5 upward of 2,000,000 automobiles are now in use in 
the United States. The use of these machines has led to 
the development of better roads, has given more rapid 



A CENTURY OF INVENTIONS 477 

transit, and has helped to solve the problem of the convey- 
ance of heavy loads with ease and comfort. 

Aeroplanes. — To-day, the dream of long ago has come 
true in the successful flights of flying machines, or aero- 
planes. The earlier aerial navigation was made by the use 
of balloons. These were neither adequate nor practical 
and were simply used for scientific and exhibition purposes. 
Throughout the world many scientific experiments were 
made by inventors in seeking to secure a practical aeroplane. 
At last two brothers, Orville and Wilbur Wright, of Day- 
ton, Ohio, constructed a gasoline or motor aeroplane that 
was successful in making a flight of some distance. In 
1908 a prize was given to Glenn Curtiss for a flight of over 
a mile. Other experiments have been made by daring 
aviators, and the near future will probably reveal even 
more practical use of this wonderful machine. 

The Telegraph. — One of the most noted inventions of 
this century is the " Magnetic Telegraph " made by 
Samuel F. B. Morse. After working for many years, 
this inventor finally perfected his machine and then he 
waited four years before he could get either the United 
States or European governments to promote the patent. 
In 1843 Congress voted thirty thousand dollars to build a 
telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. It 
was completed the next year and proved a success. 
Almost immediately other nations took up the patent, 
and it was not long before many lines of the Morse tele- 
graph were started. 

Atlantic Cable. — In 1848 Commodore Maury suggested 
the idea of a submarine telegraph to Cyrus Field. The 
plan was taken up by Field, while business men in England 
and America subscribed money to promote the enterprise. 
The United States Congress made a special appropriation 
to the fund, and work was begun. Three experiments 
were made before the cable was a success. At last, in 1858, 



478 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Field succeeded in laying the cable between England and 
America, and the first message sent was greetings between 
President Buchanan and Queen Victoria. Unfortunately 
this cable broke within three weeks and the expensive and 
tedious task was again undertaken by Field. After three 
years of patient labor the cable was completed and has since 
remained as a regular means of communication between 
the United States and foreign countries. To-day cable 
systems connect all parts of the world and are the means 
of bringing international questions to a more speedy settle- 
ment. 

Marconi Telegraph. — Even more wonderful than the 
magnetic telegraph has been the invention of the " wireless 
telegraph " by Marconi, an Italian. To-day every vessel is 
equipped with its own station, while from land and sea 
flash the waves of messages across the air. This system 
has been of special value to ships at sea, and the signal 
service has served to send speedy relief to boats in 
danger. 

Telephone. — To-day the telephone is such a household, 
as well as business, convenience that all are practically 
acquainted with its use. This invention was made by 
two inventors, Bell and Graham. Each succeeded in mak- 
ing an instrument that served to carry the human voice 
across the wires to more distant places. Within recent 
years Thomas Edison has improved the invention, and to- 
day the use of the telephone has been extended to trans- 
mitting messages for long distances with as much success 
as those sent to nearer range. 

Thomas Edison. — The mention of the great inventions 
of the present day would indeed be incomplete if one should 
omit the work of the greatest inventor that America has 
produced. This wonderful genius, Thomas Edison, has 
devoted his life to making many unique as well as useful 
inventions. Edison's greatest work has been in the field 



A CENTURY OF INVENTIONS 



479 



of electricity. Here he has not only made original investi- 
gations, but he has taken older and undeveloped experi- 
ments and has evolved many 




Thomas Edison. 



perfect patents. Among 
these inventions that have 
been of vital importance 
to the world are Edison's 
incandescent electric light, 
the improved arc light, im- 
proved dynamos and en- 
gines for power force, the 
phonograph, and the vita- 
graph. These are but a few 
of the many devices that 
he has brought forward, but 
they serve to illustrate the 
varied range of inventions 
that to-day are of vast commercial and social value. 

The Making of Books. — Since the epoch-making dis- 
covery of the art of printing, many centuries ago, there 
has been a steady development of ways and means to im- 
prove the process of making books. The ancient hand press 
has been set aside by the steam press invented by Hoe. 
Many other inventions and processes, such as the lino- 
type machine, lithographing, and electroplating, have 
helped to make books cheaper and more attractive than 
ever before. This has given to the world an opportunity 
for every one to own and use books, and through this wide 
use of books the world has become more civilized and up- 
lifted. The modern newspaper, numbering many pages 
and selling for a few cents, is an illustration of the marvelous 
advance made in the line of printing. 

Medical Research. — In the realm of medicine we also 
find a number of important discoveries that should be men- 
tioned in connection with the progress of our country. 



480 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Within recent years skilled physicians have discovered 
that many contagious and infectious diseases are trans- 
mitted by germs or microbes. In order to eradicate these 
germs special antitoxins have been made which have had 
a powerful effect in arresting epidemics and in curing suc- 
cessfully maladies that were formerly considered almost' 
fatal. Antiseptics have also been discovered, and their 
use in surgical operations, as well as in simpler ways, have 
been the means of securing speedy recoveries by removing 
the dangers of blood poison. 

In 1846 Dr. W. T. G. Morton, of Boston, discovered 
the value of anaesthetics, or certain gases that produce 
artificial sleep and render the patient insensible to pain. 
This discovery has been one of the greatest blessings to 
mankind, for by this process many serious surgical opera- 
tions have been performed without apparent pain to the 
patient. There has been a prior claim to this discovery 
made by Dr. Crawford W. Long, of Georgia, who discovered 
in 1842 that ether could be used to make a patient insensible 
to pain. Dr. Long's discovery was not known to many 
medical men at the time, and within a few years similar 
discoveries and experiments were made by other physi- 
cians. In 1847 an English physician discovered the value 
of chloroform as an anaesthetic. 

The Roentgen or X-Ray Treatment is another valuable 
method used by physicians to-day, and the discovery of 
Radium has also produced a profound effect upon medical 
science. 

In many of the hospitals of our country students 
are working daily in the department of medical research, 
and from time to time their untiring efforts have resulted 
in wonderful discoveries for the healing of the nation. 



A CENTURY OF INVENTIONS 481 



Topical Outline 

A Century of Inventions. 

I. McCormick Reaper. 

II. Sugar Machinery. 

III. Cotton Gin and Press. 

IV. Sewing Machine. 
V. Vulcanized Rubber. 

VI. Automobiles. 

VII. Aeroplanes. 

VIII. The Telegraph. 

IX. Atlantic Cable. 

X. Marconi Telegraph. 

XI. Telephone. 

XII. Thomas Edison. 

XIII. The Making of Books. 

XIV. Medical Research. 



Review Questions 

1. Why is the nineteenth century called the century of inventions? 

2. What are some of the most important labor-saving inventions? 

3. Describe some of the new methods used in transportation. 

4. Who invented the telegraph and the telephone? What is the 
value of these instruments? 

5. Who is the greatest American inventor? Mention some of his 
inventions. 

6. Give a brief history of the invention of printing. 

7. What are some of the most noted discoveries in medicine? 



21 



CHAPTER XXXII 
AN ERA OF EXPOSITIONS 

The Purpose of Fairs. — Among the means used by 
governments to promote the development of their people 
is the inauguration of state and international fairs. This 
custom has been in vogue in Europe for centuries and has 
given a large opportunity for the display of the products 
and manufactures of the country as well as the expansion 
of ideas and interests. The United States has also realized 
the advantages of these fairs and has held a number of them 
in different parts of our country, with the result that our 
people have become better acquainted with the natural 
resources of the country. They have been introduced to 
new sections of the United States, and they have been 
brought to recognize the importance of the country as a 
whole. Within the past fifty years the United States has 
opened some of the largest international fairs that have 
ever been given 

Philadelphia Centennial. — The first important inter- 
national fair was the Centennial Exposition of Philadelphia, 
held in 1876, in commemoration of the one hundredth 
anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. Many 
foreign countries contributed beautiful exhibits, includ- 
ing loan collections of rare works of art that were seen in 
this country for the first time. This fair revealed the possi- 
bilities of the agricultural resources of this country and was 
the means of encouraging larger immigration to the South 
and West. It was the means too of bringing our people 

482 



AN ERA OF EXPOSITIONS 483 

together and creating a stronger bond of friendship between 
the states. 

Cotton Centennial. — After the Philadelphia exposition, 
another world's fair was held in New Orleans in 1884. 
This was known as the " Cotton Centennial Exposition," 
and was held in celebration of the one hundredth anni- 
versary of the shipment of the first bale of cotton from 
America. This exposition was also largely attended and 
the display of foreign and domestic manufactures was 
especially interesting. The main building covered thir- 
teen acres and here was shown a complete exhibit of cotton- 
manufacturing machinery. The exhibit sent by the United 
States government included many of the rare specimens of 
the Smithsonian collection. 

Columbian Exposition. — One of the most magnificent 
expositions ever held in the world was the World's Fair 
of Chicago, opened in 1893, and commemorating the four 
hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America. Its 
buildings were covered with a composition similar to plaster 
and so constructed as to give the idea of white marble. 
It received the justly earned title the " White City." The 
buildings were very graceful and ornate, and no pains were 
spared in planning the construction. The artistic effect 
was one of the finest ever produced, and the United States 
won the admiration of the world by this splendid effort. 
The art exhibit was the finest. ever shown in America, and 
the completeness of the foreign exhibits gave the fair a 
large international importance. The patronage was enor- 
mous, and the practical lessons learned from the exposition 
have produced splendid results in the development of our 
national art and industries. 

Pan-American Exposition. — Perhaps one of the most 
attractive of the smaller fairs was that held in Buffalo in 
1901. It was known as the Pan-American Exposition, 
and was designed to bring together the interests and re- 



484 AMERICAN HISTORY 

sources of all of the American countries. The buildings 
were largely patterned after the Spanish architecture used 
in the Mexican and South American States. The warm 
tones used in the buildings and the setting of beautiful 
grounds gave a charming effect of rich, harmonious colors. 
The electrical display was one of the finest ever made, and 
the night illuminations were beautiful beyond compare. 

Louisiana-Purchase Exposition. — This fair was held in 
St. Louis in 1904, and was a rival to the wonderful fair held 
in Chicago. The buildings and grounds were excellently ar- 
ranged, and the lavish display of beautiful flower beds lent 
an added charm to the grounds. The " Court of Foun- 
tains " was one of the loveliest conceptions in the arrange- 
ment of the plans. 

The keynote of the Exposition was education. Up to 
this time, no other world's fair had ever given so complete 
an exhibit of the development of education as this mag- 
nificent fair. Besides the exhibits of the elementary and 
secondary schools, showing every phase of the courses of 
study pursued in these schools, there were elaborate exhibits 
showing systems of education for the blind, deaf, dumb, 
and other exceptional classes. Vocational schools were 
largely represented, and the ideas of industrial education 
displayed at this time found a responsive note in many 
sections of the United States, where this work has since 
been pursued with eminent success. 

The state exhibits at this fair were especially noteworthy, 
and the foreign exhibit was interesting and extensive. 

One of the principal features of the fair was the temple of 
music, where a series of organ recitals were given by the 
most famous musicians of the world. These music treats 
attracted thousands of visitors. 

Panama-Pacific Fair. — In 191 5 the Panama-Pacific 
Fair was held in San Francisco in honor of the comple- 
tion of the Panama Canal. This also ranks as one of the 



AN ERA OF EXPOSITIONS 



485 



important international fairs held in this country. Here 
the development of the various systems of transportation 
had been the leading thought. The fair was located on 
the bay and by the natural surroundings given an attrac- 
tive setting, water, land, and air crafts of all descriptions 




View of the Panama Pacific Exposition. 



were exhibited. One of the most interesting of these ex- 
hibits was the aviation field, where varied and skillful 
exhibitions of aerial navigation were shown. The floral 
and agricultural exhibits of this fair were unsurpassed, and 
the electrical display was the most elaborate and complete 
that the world has seen. 



486 AMERICAN HISTORY 

Topical Outline 

An Era of Expositions. 
I. The Purpose of Fairs. 
II. Philadelphia Centennial. 

III. Cotton Centennial. 

IV. Columbian Centennial. 
V. Pan-American Exposition. 

VI. Louisiana-Purchase Exposition. 
VII. Panama-Pacific Fair. 



Review Questions 

i. What is the purpose of state fairs ? International fairs? 
2. Mention some of the most noted of the expositions held in the 
United States. What event did each commemorate ? 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 

(For use as a blackboard outline and a guide to study) 



uropean 
Background 
of American < 
History 


Causes leading 
to Discovery of 
America. 


i. 

2. 

3- 
4- 


Loss of Oriental Trade. 
Inspiration of Crusades. 
Fall of Constantinople. 
Effects of Renaissance. 






5- 


Portuguese Maritime 
Efforts. 



Discovery of 
New World, 
i 000-1504 



1. Northmen, 
1000 A.D. 



Gunnbjorn, Greenland. 

Eric, Greenland. 

Bjarni, Greenland. (Unimportant 

in history.) 
Leif, Labrador, New England. 
' West Indies, 



2. Columbian Voyages, 1492-1 502 



and 



Central 

South 

America. 

3. The Cabots, 1497-1498, Labrador, New Eng 

land. 

4. Vespucius, 1498, South America. 

5. Cabral, 1504, South America. 



Proof of the 

Rotundity of the 
Earth by Circum- 
navigation. 



Era of Ex- 
ploration, 
1 500-1 600 



Spanish 



1. Magellan and Del Cano, 1520. 

2. Sir Francis Drake, 1580. 



De Leon, Florida, 151 2. 

Gomez and d'Allyon, Atlantic Coast, 

1519-1526. 
Cortez, Mexico, 1519. 
Pizarro, Peru, 1523. 
Coronado, Kansas, Nebraska, 1540. 
Cabrillo, California, 1540. 
De Soto, Mississippi Valley, 1 539-1 540. 
487 



4 88 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



French 



Era of Ex- 
ploration, 
i 500-1600 
(Cont.) 



French Fishermen visit North America, 

1500. 
John Denys, Newfoundland, 1506. 
Verrazano, North Atlantic Coast, 1524. 
Cartier, St. Lawrence River, 1534-1541. 
Champlain, St. Lawrence River, Lake 

Champlain, Great Lakes, 1605-163 5. 
Joliet and Marquette, Mississippi Valley, 

1673- 
La Salle and Tonty, Mississippi Valley, 

1678-1682. 
Iberville and Bienville, lower Mississippi 

Valley, 1699-17 18. 

The Cabots, Atlantic Coast of N.A., 1498. 
Sir Humphrey Gilbert, Newfoundland, 

Nova Scotia, New England, 1583. 
Philip Amidas and Arthur Barlow 

(Raleigh enterprise) Carolina Coast, 

1584. 
Bartholomew Gosnold, New England, 

1602. 
Martin Frobisher, Northwest Passage, 

Frobisher's Inlet, 1576. 
Sir John Davis, Northwest Passage, 

Davis Strait, 1586. 
Henry Hudson, Northwest Passage, 

Hudson Bay, 1610. 
. Sir William Baffin, Baffin's Bay, 161 5. 

Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588, gives England larger Sea Power. 



English 





Spanish, 


' Florida 
and 




1 540-1 760 


. Texas. 

'Carolina, 1562; Florida, 1564 (Hugue 


Period of 




nots). 


Coloniza- • 




Acadia, 1604. 


tion 


French 


Quebec and Montreal, 1605-1608. 




Texas, 1685 (Matagorda Bay). 






Mississippi, Biloxi, 1699. 






Alabama, Mobile, 1702. 




, 


Louisiana, New Orleans, 17 18. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 



489 



Dutch 



German 



Period of 
Coloniza- 
tion 
{Cont) 



English 



The Struggle 
for 
Supremacy 



New Netherlands ( New York), 1609 

1660. 
Connecticut River, 1633. 
Delaware, 1655. 

Louisiana (German Coast), 1726. 
Georgia (Ebenezer), 1734. 
Pennsylvania (Bethlehem). 

Swedes New Sweden (Delaware) 1638-1655. 



f Virginia, 1607. 
Southern CarolinaS; l6o3 . 
Colonies | Georgia> iy ^ 



New 
Endand 



Middle 
Colonies 



Massachusetts, 1620. 
New Hampshire, 1623, 
Connecticut and New 
Haven, 163 5-1638. 
Rhode Island, 1636. 

Maryland, 1632. 
Delaware, 1638. 
New York, 1664. 
New Jersey, 1664. 
. Pennsylvania, 1681. 



The American 
Revolution 



1. Indian 

Conflicts 



2. Intercolonial 
Wars 



Indirect 
Causes 



Powhatan and Opecancanough in 

Virginia, 162 2-1644. 
Pequot War (1637), King Philip's 

War in New England. 
Creek War, Georgia. 

King William's (1689-1697)- 
Queen Anne's (1702-17 13). 
King George's (1 744-1 748). 
French and Indian (1 7 54- 1763) • 

Remoteness from England. 
Colonial Self-government. 
Colonial Trade Expansion. 
Burden of the National Debt. 
Church Administration. 



49Q 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



The American 
Revolution 
(Cont.) 



Direct Causes 



Colonial 
Protests 



i. Opposition to National Taxa- 
tion. 
a. Navigation Laws ; b. Stamp 
Act ; c. Townshend Duties ; 
d. Grenville Duties. 
2. Objection to National Inter- 
ference. 
a. Quebec Act; b. Quartering 
Act ; c. Transportation Act ; 
d. Closing of Ports ; e. De- 
nial of Charter Rights. 

First Continental Congress. 
Work of the Committees on Cor- 
respondence. 



Military 
Events of 
Revolution 



Early Struggles 



British Plan of 
Campaign 



First Plan 



Second Plan 



Third Plan 



North Carolina. 

Lexington. 

Ticonderoga. 

Lord Dunmore's War. 



' Cut off New England from other 
Colonies. 
Blockade American Ports. 
Capture Philadelphia. 
To organize Tory Forces and over- 
run the South. 

Bunker Hill. 
Siege of Boston. 
Attack on Quebec. 
Battle of Long Island. 
Campaign in New York. 
Battle of Saratoga. 

Capture of Boston. 
Capture of New York. 
Capture of Savannah. 

Trenton. 
Princeton. 
Brandy wine. 
Philadelphia taken. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 



491 



Military 
Events of 
Revolution 
(Cont.) 



Fourth Plan 



British use Savannah as military 

Base. 
Partisan Leaders defeat British 

Plans. 
Battle of King's Mountain. 
Greene's Success in South. 



Surrender at Yorktown. 



Treaty of Peace 

Civil events of the Revolution 



First Continental Congress. 
Second Continental Congress. 
Mecklenburg Declaration. 
Declaration of Independence. 
Articles of Confederation. 
Foreign Treaties. 



The National 
Government 



First Plans for Union 



Articles of Confeder- 
ation 



The Constitutional 
Conventions 



The Constitution 



Albany Congress. 
Stamp Act Congress. 
Continental Congress. 

Taxation. 
Foreign Treaties. 
Ordinance 1787. 

{Mount Vernon Conference. 
Annapolis Meeting. 
Philadelphia Convention. 

C Sources of the Constitution. 
< Needs for Constitution. 
I The Compromises. 

The Form : Executive, 
Legislative, Judiciary. 

Ratification. 

Amendments forming Bill 
of Rights. 

Interpretation : Strict and 
Loose Construction. 



492 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Establish- 
ment of 
Na- 
tional 
Gov- 
ern- 
ment 



Washington's 
Adminis- 
tration, 
i 789-1 797 



Adams, 
1797-1801 



Organization of Govern- 
ment. 
Political Parties. 
Foreign Treaties. 
Local Issues. 

' Foreign Troubles. 
Alien and Sedition Laws. 
Kentucky and Virginia 

Resolutions. 
Downfall of Federalists. 



Development 
of the 
Nation 



Growth of 
Democ- 
racy 



Jefferson, 
1801-1809 



Madison, 
1809-1817 



Monroe, 
1817-1825 



War with Tripoli. 
Louisiana Purchase. 
Free Trade and Sea- 
men's Rights. 
The Embargo. 

War of 1812. 

Rise of American Manu- 
factures. 

Protective Tariff. 

Controversy over Admis- 
sion of Louisiana. 

Era of Good Feeling. 
Florida Purchase. 
Missouri Compromise. 
Monroe Doctrine. 



J. Q. Adams, f The Tariff Controversy. 
1825-1829 l Rise of New Democracy. 



Jackson, 
1829-1837 



Van Buren, 
1837-1841 



Spoils System. 
Rise of Western Inter- 
ests. 
Tariff and Nullification. 
Opposition to Bank. 
Distribution of Surplus. 
Panic of 1837. 

f Effects of Panic. 

< Independent Treasury 

[ System. 



CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 



493 



Tariff Issues. 







Harrison- 
Tyler, 


The Bank Question. 






Webster- Ashburton 






1841-1845 


Treaty. 
Annexation of Texas. 






Polk, 


Mexican War. 






1845-1849 


Oregon Question. 
Wilmot Proviso. 




The 
Slavery 
Con- 


Taylor and 
Fillmore, < 
1849-1853 


The Compromise of 
1850. 




tro- 
versy . 
and its 


Pierce, 

1853-1857 1 


Kansas-Nebraska Act. 




Relation 




' Kansas War. 




to 


Buchanan, 


Dred Scott Decision. 




States' 


1857-1861 


Lincoln-Douglas Debate. 




Rights 




John Brown Raid. 


Development 
of the 
Nation 
{Cont.) 




Lincoln, 
1861-1865 


' Secession. 
War between the States. 
. Emancipation Act. 

- Reconstruction. 
Radicalism. 






Johnson, 


Tenure of Office Act. 






1865-1869 


Impeachment of Presi- 
dent. 








' Carpet-bag Regime in 
South. 






Grant, 


Centennial Exposition. 






1869-1877 


Whisky Frauds. 




Growth of 




Expansion of Western 
Interests. 




Ameri- 








can Na- 




f Contested Election. 




tion 


Hayes, 


< Restoration of Southern 






1877-1881 


I Political Rights. 






Garfield and 


f Civil Service Reform. 






Arthur, 


< Immigration Acts. 






1881-1885 


[ Reduction in Postage. 



494 



AMERICAN HISTORY 



Development 
of the 
Nation 
(Cont.) 



Growth of 
Ameri- 
can 

Nation 
(Cont.) 



Cleveland, 
1885-18. 



Harrison, 
1889-1893 



Cleveland, 
1893-1897 



McKinley, 
1897-1901 



Roosevelt, 
1901-1908 



Taft, 

1908-19 1 2 



Wilson, 
1912- 



Tariff Issue. 
Interstate Commerce. 
Chinese Exclusion. 

Pan-American Congress. 
McKinley Tariff Act. 
Sherman Bill. 
AustralianBallot System. 

Chicago World's Fair. 
Panic, 1893. 
Tariff Bill. 
Strikes. 

Bering Sea Fisheries. 
. Civil Service Bill. 

Spanish-American War. 
Annexation of Hawaii. 
Government of Philip- 
pines. 

Strike Arbitration. 
Panama Canal. 
New Business Methods. 
Anti-Trust Legislation. 
. St. Louis Fair. 

Payne-Aldrich Tariff 

Bill. 
Arbitration Treaties. 
Reform Measures. 

' Regional Banks Es- 
tablished. 
Parcel Post Law put into 
Effect. 

. Diplomatic Relations. 



APPENDIX 
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

(Adopted by the Continental Congress, July 4TH, 1776.) 

In CONGRESS, July 4, 1776. The unanimous declaration of the 
thirteen united States of America. 

When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with 
another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate 
and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God 
entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires 
that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separa- 
tion. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created 
equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness. 
That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, 
deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed, — That 
whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, 
it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute 
new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organiz- 
ing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect 
their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that 
Governments long established should not be changed for light and 
transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shewn, that 
mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to 
right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accus- 
tomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing 
invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them under ab- 
solute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such 
Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security. 
Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies ; and such is 
now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems 
of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a 
history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object 

495 



496 APPENDIX 

the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To 
prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and neces- 
sary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent 
should be obtained ; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected 
to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large 
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of 
Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and 
formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- 
fortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for 
the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing 
with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected ; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of 
Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise ; 
the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of in- 
vasion from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavoured to prevent the population of these States ; for 
that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners ; 
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and rais- 
ing the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands. 

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his 
Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers. 

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of 
their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of 
Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without 
the Consent of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior 
to the Civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 
to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his 
Assent to their Acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us : 

For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment, for any 
Murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States : 



APPENDIX 497 

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world : 

For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent : 

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by 
Jury: 

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences : 

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring 
Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging 
its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument 
for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies : 

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, 
and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments : 

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves in- 
vested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Pro- 
tection and waging War against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries 
to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun 
with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely parallel in the most 
barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the 
high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the 
executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by 
their Hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrections among us, and has en- 
deavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless 
Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished 
destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. 

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress 
in the most humble terms : Our repeated Petitions have been answered 
only by repeated injury. A Prince whose character is thus marked by 
every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free 
people. 

Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our Brittish brethren. 
We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legisla- 
ture to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have re- 
minded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement 
here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and 
we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow 
these usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections 
and correspondence. They too have been deaf to the voice of justice 



49 8 



APPENDIX 



and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, 
which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest 
of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends. 

We, therefore, the Representatives of the United States of America, 
in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of 
the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by 
Authority of the good People of these Colonies solemnly publish and 
declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be 
free and Indepoident States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance 
to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them 
and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved ; 
and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to 
levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, 
and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may 
of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm re- 
liance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to 
each other our Lives, our Fortunes, and our sacred Honor. 

JOHN HANCOCK. 



1 [New Hampshire.] 

Joslah Bartlett, 
William Whipple, 
Matthew Thornton. 



[Connecticut.] 

Roger Sherman, 
Samuel Huntington. 
W t illla.m Williams, 
Oliver Wolcott. 



[Massachusetts Bay.] 

Samuel Adams, 
John Adams, 
Robert Treat Paine, 
Elbrtdge Gerry. 



[New York.] 

William Floyd, 
Philip Livingston, 
Francis Lewis, 
Lewis Morris. 



[Rhode Islajid.] 

Stephen Hopkins, 
William Ellery. 



[New Jersey.] 

Richard Stockton, 
John Witherspoon, 
Francis Hopkinson, 
John Hart, 
Abraham Clark. 



1 This arrangement of the names is made for convenience. The States are not 
mentioned in the original. 



APPENDIX 



499 



[Pennsylvania.] 

Robert Morris, 
Benjamin Rush, 
Benjamin Franklin, 
John Morton, 
George Clymer, 
James Smith, 
George Taylor, 
James Wilson, 
George Ross. 



[Delaware.] 

Cesar Rodney, 
George Read, 
Thomas M'Kean. 



[Maryland.] 

Samuel Chase, 
William Paca, 
Thomas Stone, 
Charles Carroll of Carrollton. 



[Virginia.] 

George Wythe, 
Richard Henry Lee, 
Thom\s Jefferson, 
Benjamin Harrison, 
Thomas Nelson, Jr., 
Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
Carter Braxton. 



[North Carolina.] 

William Hooper, 
Joseph Hewes, 
John Penn. 



[South Carolina.] 

Edward Rutledge, 
Thomas Heyward, Jr., 
Thomas Lynch, Jr., 
Arthur Mlddleton. 



[Georgia.] 

Button Gwinnett, 
Lyman Hall, 
Geo. Walton. 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED 
STATES 

We the people of the L T nited States, in Order to form 
a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic 
Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote 
the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to 
ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this 
Constitution for the United States of America. 



Preamble. 
Objects of 
the Consti- 
tution. 



5°° 



APPENDIX 



Congress. 
Two 

houses. 



House of 
Represent- 
atives. 
Term and 
election. 

Qualifica- 
tions — 
age, citi- 
zenship, • 
residence. 

Method of 
apportion- 
ing repre- 
sentatives. 
(Part in 
brackets 
super- 
seded by 
Sec. 2 of 
Amend- 
ment 
XIV.) 
Census. 



Tempo- 
rary 
appor- 
tionment. 



Vacancies. 



Officers. 



Article I. 

Section i . All legislative Powers herein granted shall be 
vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall con- 
sist of a Senate and House of Representatives. 

Section 2. [1] The House of Representatives shall be 
composed of Members chosen every second Year by the 
People of the several States, and the Electors in each 
State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors 
of the most numerous Branch of the State Legislature. 

[2] No Person shall be a Representative who shall not 
have attained to the age of twenty-five Years, and been 
seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall 
not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which 
he shall be chosen. 

[3] [Representatives and direct Taxes shall be ap- 
portioned among the several States which may be in- 
cluded within this Union, according to their respective 
Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the 
whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to 
Service for a Term of, Years, and excluding Indians not 
taxed, three fifths of all other Persons.] The actual 
Enumeration shall be made within three Years after 
the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, 
and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such 
Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of 
Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty 
Thousand, but each State shall have at least one Repre- 
sentative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the 
State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, 
Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plan- 
tations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey 
four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, 
Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, 
and Georgia three. 

[4] When vacancies happen in the Representation from 
any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue 
Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies. 

[5] The House of Representatives shall chuse their 
Speaker and other Officers ; and shall have the sole Power 
of Impeachment. 



APPENDIX 



50I 



Section 3. [1] The Senate of the United States shall be 
composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the 
Legislature thereof, for six Years ; and each Senator shall 
have one Vote. 

[2] Immediately after they shall be assembled in Conse- 
quence of the first Election, they shall be divided as 
equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the 
Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expira- 
tion of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expira- 
tion of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Ex- 
piration of the sixth Year, so that one-third may be chosen 
every second Year ; and if Vacancies happen by Resigna- 
tion, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature 
of any State, the Executive thereof may make temporary 
Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, 
which shall then fill such Vacancies. 

[3] No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have at- 
tained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a 
Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when 
elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall 
be chosen. 

[4] The Vice President of the United States shall be 
President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless 
they be equally divided. 

[5] The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also 
a President pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice Presi- 
dent, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of 
the United States. 

[6] The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Im- 
peachments. When sitting for that Purpose, they shall 
be on Oath of Affirmation. When the President of the 
United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside: 
And no Person shall be convicted without the Concur- 
rence of two thirds of the Members present. 

[7] Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not ex- 
tend further than to removal from Office, and dis- 
qualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, 
Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party 
convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to 
Indictment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according 
to Law. 



Senate. 
Election 
and term. 



Division of 
Senators 
into three 
classes. 



Vacancies. 



Qualifica- 
tions — 
age, citi- 
zenship, 
residence. 



Vice-presi- 
dent. 



Officers. 



Trial of 
impeach- 
ments. 



Judgment 
in cases of 
impeach- 
ment. 



502 



APPENDIX 



Both 
Houses. 
Times, 
places, and 
method of 
electing 
members. 
Time of 
meeting. 



Member- 
ship regu- 
lations. 
Quorum. 



Rules of 

each 

house. 

Journals. 



Special 
adjourn- 
ments. 



Members. 
Compen- 
sation and 
privileges 
of mem- 
bers. 



Disabili- 
ties of 
members. 



Section 4. [1] The Times, Places and Manner of holding 
Elections for Senators and Representatives, shall be 
prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof ; but 
the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such 
Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators. 

[2] The Congress shall assemble at least once in every 
Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in 
December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different 
Day. 

Section 5. [1] Each House shall be the Judge of the 
Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Mem- 
bers, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum 
to do Business ; but a smaller Number may adjourn from 
day to day, and may be authorized to compel the atten- 
dance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under 
such Penalities as each House may provide. 

[2] Each House may determine the Rules of its Pro- 
ceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, 
and, with the Concurrence of two thirds, expel a Member. 

[3] Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, 
and from time to time publish the same, excepting such 
Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy; and 
the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any 
question shall, at the Desire of one fifth of those Present, 
be entered on the Journal. 

[4] Neither House, during the Session of Congress, 
shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more 
than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which 
the two Houses shall be sitting. 

Section 6. [1] The Senators and Representatives shall 
receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascer- 
tained by law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United 
States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony, 
and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during 
their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, 
and in going to and returning from the same ; and for 
any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be 
questioned in any other Place. 

[2] No Senator or Representative shall, during the 
Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil 
Office under the Authority of the United States, which 



APPENDIX 



503 



Bills and 
resolutions. 
Revenue 
bills. 

Veto of 
President 
on bills. 



shall have been created, or the Emoluments whereof 
shall have been encreased during such time ; and no Person 
holding any Office under the United States, shall be a 
Member of either House during his Continuance in Office. 

Section 7. [1] All Bills for raising Revenue shall orig- 
inate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate 
may propose or concur with Amendments as on other 
Bills. 

[2] Every Bill which shall have passed the House of 
Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become 
a Law, be presented to the President of the United States ; 
If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, 
with his Objections to that House in which it shall have 
originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their 
Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Re- 
consideration two thirds of that House shall agree to pass 
the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to 
the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, 
and if approved by two thirds of that House, it shall be- 
come a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both 
Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and 
the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill 
shall be entered on the Journal of each House respec- 
tively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the 
President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after 
it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be 
a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless 
the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return, 
in which Case it shall not be a Law. 

[3] Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Con- 
currence of the Senate and House of Representatives may 
be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall 
be presented to the President of the United States and 
before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by 
him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by 
two thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the 
Case of a Bill. 

Section 8. The Congress shall have Power [1] To lay Powers of 
and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay Con & ress - 
the Debts and provide for the common Defence and 



Veto on 
resolutions. 



504 



APPENDIX 



Taxation. 



Borrowing. 

Regulating 
commerce. 

Natural- 
ization and 
bankruptcy. 

Coins, 

weights, and 
measures. 

Counter- 
feiting. 

Post offices. 

Patents and 
copyrights. 



Inferior 
courts. 

Piracies. 



War. 



Army. 



Navy. 

Land and 
naval forces. 

Militia, in 
service. 



Militia, 
organization. 



general Welfare of the United States ; but all duties, Im- 
posts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United 
States ; 

[2] To borrow Money on the credit of the United 
States ; 

[3] To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and 
among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes ; 

[4] To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and 
uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout 
the United States; 

[5] To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of 
foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Meas- 
ures; 

[6] To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the 
Securities and current Coin of the United States ; 

[7] To establish Post Offices and post Roads ; 

[8] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts 
by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors 
the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Dis- 
coveries ; 

[9] To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme 
Court ; 

[10] To define and punish Piracies and Felonies com- 
mitted on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of 
Nations ; 

[n] To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Re- 
prisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and 
Water ; 

[12] To raise and support Armies, but no Appropria- 
tion of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than 
two Years ; 

[13] To provide and maintain a Navy; 

[14] To make Rules for the Government and Regula- 
tion of the land and naval Forces ; 

[15] To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute 
the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel 
Invasions ; 

[16] To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplin- 
ing, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as 
may be employed in the Service of the United States, 
reserving to the States respectively, the Appointment of 



APPENDIX 



5°5 



and stations. 



the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia 
according to the discipline prescribed by Congress. 

[17] To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases Seat of 
whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles government, 
square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the 
Acceptance of Congress become the Seat of the Govern- 
ment of the United States, and to exercise like Authority 
over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legisla- 
ture of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erec- 
tion of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock- Yards, and other 
needful Buildings ; — And 

[18] To make all Laws which shall be necessary and 
proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, 
and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the 
Government of the United States, or in any Department 
or Office thereof. 



Supplemen- 
tary legisla- 
tion. 



Section 9. [1] The Migration or Importation of such 
Persons as any of the States now existing shall think 
proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress 
prior to the Year one thousand eight hundred and eight, 
but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, 
not exceeding ten dollars for each Person. 

[2] The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not 
be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or In- 
vasion the public Safety may require it. 

[3] No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be 
passed. 

[4] No Capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, 
unless in Proportion to the Census or Enumeration here- 
inbefore directed to be taken. 

[5] No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported 
from any State. 

[6] No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of 
Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over 
those of another : nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one 
State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. 

[7] No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in 
Consequence of Appropriations made by Law ; and a reg- 
ular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Ex- 
penditures of all public Money shall be published from 
time to time. 



Limitations 
on powers of 
Congress. 
Slave trade. 



Habeas 
corpus. 

Bills of 
attainder 
and ex post 
facto laws. 
Direct tax. 

Tax on 
exports. 

Uniform 

commercial 

regulations. 



Finance. 



506 



APPENDIX 



Titles of 
nobility and 
presents. 



Limitations 
on powers of 
States. 

Specific pro- 
hibitions. 



Limitations 
on imposts. 



Prohibitions 
removable 
with consent 
of Congress. 



[8] No title of Nobility shall be granted by the United 
States: And no Person holding any Office of Profit or 
Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the 
Congress, accept of any present, Emolument, Office, or 
Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or 
foreign State. 

Section 10. [i] No State shall enter into any Treaty, Al- 
liance, or Confederation ; grant Letters of Marque and 
Reprisal ; coin Money ; emit Bills of Credit, make any 
Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in. Payment of 
Debts ; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or 
Law impairing the obligation of Contracts, or grant any 
Title of Nobility. 

[2] No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, 
lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, ex- 
cept what may be absolutely necessary for executing 
it's inspection Laws : and the net Produce of all Duties 
and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, 
shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States ; 
and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and 
Controul of the Congress. 

[3] No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay 
any Duty of tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in 
time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with 
another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War, 
unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as 
will not admit of delay. 



President. 

Term. 

Presidential 

electors and 

method of 

choosing 

President. 



Article II. 

Section 1. [1] The executive Power shall be vested in a 
President of the United States of America. He shall hold 
his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together 
with the Vice President, chosen for the same term, be 
elected, as follows : 

[2] Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the 
Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, 
equal to the whole Number of Senators and Representa- 
tives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress : 
but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an 
Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be 



APPENDIX 



507 



appointed an Elector. [The electors shall meet in their 
respective States, and vote by ballot for two Persons, of 
whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same 
State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all 
the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for 
each ; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit 
sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, 
directed to the President of the Senate. The President of 
the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House 
of Representatives, open all the Certificates, and the 
Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the 
greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such 
Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors 
appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such 
Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the 
House of Representatives shall immediately chuse by 
Ballot one of them for President ; and if no Person have a 
Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said 
House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in 
chusing the President, the Votes shall be taken by States, 
the Representation from each State having one Vote; 
A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or 
Members from two-thirds of the States, and a Majority 
of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every 
Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having 
the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be 
the Vice President. But if there should remain two or 
more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from 
them by Ballot the Vice President.] 

[3] The Congress may determine the Time of chusing 
the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their 
Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the 
United States. 

[4] No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a citizen 
of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this 
Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President ; 
neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall 
not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and 
been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. 

[5] In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, 
or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the 
Powers and Duties of the said Office, the same shall 



(Part in 
brackets 
superseded 
by XII 
amendment.) 



Dates of 
elections. 



Qualifica- 
tions, citi- 
zenship, age, 
and 
residence. 



Presidential 
succession. 



5 o8 



APPENDIX 



Compensa- 
tion. 



Oath of 
office. 



Powers of 

President. 

Military, 

supervisory, 

and 

judicial. 



In treaties 
and in 
appoint- 
ments. 



devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by 
Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resigna- 
tion, or Inability, both of the President and Vice Presi- 
dent, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, 
and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Dis- 
ability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

[6] The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his 
Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be en- 
creased nor diminished during the Period for which he 
shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within 
that Period any other Emolument from the United States, 
or any of them. 

[7] Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he 
shall take the following Oath or Affirmation: — "I do 
solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute 
the Office of President of the United States, and will tG 
the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the 
Constitution of the United States." 

Section 2. [i]"The President shall be Commander in 
Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of 
the Militia of the several States, when called into the 
actual Service of the United States ; he may require the 
Opinion, in writing, of the principal Officer in each of the 
executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the 
Duties of their respective Offices, and he shall have 
Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences 
against the United States, except in Cases of Impeach- 
ment. 

[2] He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and 
Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two- 
thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall 
nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of 
the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public 
Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, 
and all other Officers of the United States, whose Ap- 
pointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and 
which shall be established by Law : but the Congress 
may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior 
Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, 
in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Depart- 
ments. 



APPENDIX 509 

[3] The President shall have Power to fill up all Temporary 
Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the a PP° lnt - 
Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire 
at the End of their next Session. 

Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Legislative 
Congress Information of the State of the Union, and powers, 
recommend to their Consideration such Measures as 
he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on 
extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either 
of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, 
with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may 
adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper ; 
he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Minis- 
ters; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully 
executed, and shall Commission all the Officers of the 
United States. 

Section 4. The President, Vice President and all civil Liability to 

Officers of the United States, shall be removed from impeach- 

Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, ment - 
Bribery, or other high Crimes and Misdemeanors. 

Article III. 

Section 1. The judicial Power of the United States, Judiciary. 

shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such Courts. 

inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time 

ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme Judges: 

and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good term an 
1 to to compen- 

Behaviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their sat ion. 
Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished 
during their Continuance in Office. 

Section 2. [1] The judicial Power shall extend to all jurisdiction. 
Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitu- 
tion, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, 
or which shall be made, under their Authority ; — to 
all cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers 
and Consuls ; — *■ to all cases of admiralty and maritime 
Jurisdiction ; — to Controversies to which the United 
States shall be a party ; — to controversies between two 
or more States ; — between a State and Citizens of 



5i° 



APPENDIX 



Original and 
appellate 
jurisdiction 
of Supreme 
Court. 



Jury trial. 
Place of 
trial. 



Treason : 
definition, 



punishment. 



another State ; — between Citizens of different States — 
between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under 
Grants of different States, and between a State, or the 
Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or subjects. 

[2] In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public 
Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall 
be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Juris- 
diction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the 
supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both 
as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under 
such Regulations as the Congress shall make. 

[3] The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeach- 
ment, shall be by Jury ; and such Trial shall be held in 
the State where the said Crimes shall have been com- 
mitted; but when not committed within any State, 
the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Con- 
gress may by Law have directed. 

Section 3. [1] Treason against the United States, shall 
consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering 
to their Enemies, giving them Aid and Comfort. No 
Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the 
Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, 
or on Confession in open Court. 

[2] The Congress shall have Power to declare the 
Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason 
shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except 
during the Life of the Person attainted. 



Nation and 
States. 

Interstate 
comity. 



Interstate 
citizenship. 

Extradition 
of criminals. 



Article IV. 

Section 1 . Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each 
State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceed- 
ings of every other State. And the Congress may by 
general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, 
Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the 
Effect thereof. 

Section 2. [1] The Citizens of each State shall be en- 
titled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the 
several States. 

[2] A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony 
or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found 



5ii 



APPENDIX 

in another State, shall on Demand of the executive 
Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered 
up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of 
the Crime. 

[3] No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, Fugitive 
under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in slaves. 
Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be 
discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be 
delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Serv- 
ice or Labour may be due. 

Section 3. [1] New States may be admitted by the Admission 
Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be of new 
formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other States - 
State ; nor any State be formed by the Junction of two 
or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent 
of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of 
the Congress. 

[2] The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and Government 
make all needful Rules and Regulations respecting the of national 
Territory or other Property belonging to the United temtory - 
States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so 
construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United 
States, or of any particular State. 

Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every Protection 
State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, oi States, 
and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and 
on Application of the Legislature, or of the Executive 
(when the Legislature cannot be convened) against 
domestic Violence. 

Article V. 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both Houses Amendment 
shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to OF Consti- 
this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legis- TT - TI °- 
latures of two thirds of the several States, shall call a 
Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either 
Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes as Part 
of this Constitution, when ratified by the Legislatures 
of three fourths of the several States, or by Conventions 
in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode 
of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; 



512 



APPENDIX 



Miscel- 
laneous. 
Preexisting 
national 
debt. 

Supremacy 
of Constitu- 
tion, treaties, 
and national 
law. 



Oaths of 
national 
and state 
officials. 



Ratifica- 
tion. 



Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior 
to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall 
in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the 
Ninth Section of the first Article ; and that no State, 
without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suf- 
frage in the Senate. 

Article VI. 

[i] All Debts contracted and Engagements entered 
into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall 
be as valid against the United States under this Con- 
stitution, as under the Confederation. 

[2] This Constitution, and the Laws of the United 
States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and 
all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the 
Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 
Law of the Land ; and the Judges in every State shall 
be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or 
Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding. 

[3] The Senators and Representatives before men- 
tioned, and the Members of the several State Legisla- 
tures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the 
United States and of the several States, shall be bound 
by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; 
but no religious Test shall ever be required as a Quali- 
fication to any Office or public Trust under the United 
States. 

Article VII. 

The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, 
shall be sufficient for the Establishment of this Constitu- 
tion between the States so ratifying the Same. 
Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the 
States present the Seventeenth Day of September in 
the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred 
and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the 
United States of America the Twelfth. In Witness 
whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names, 

Go Washington — 
Presidt. and Deputy from Virginia 
[and thirty eight members from all the States except 
Rhode Island.] 



APPENDIX 513 



ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMEND- 
MENT OF, THE CONSTITUTION OF THE 
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, PROPOSED 
BY CONGRESS, AND RATIFIED BY THE 
LEGISLATURES OF THE SEVERAL STATES 
PURSUANT TO THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF 
THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION. 

[Article I ! ] 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- Prohibitions 
ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; on Congress 
or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; res P? ctin s 

i • 1 r i t 11 111 religion, 

or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to speech, and 
petition the Government for a redress of grievances. the press. 

[Article II J ] 

A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the se- Right to 
curity of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms- 
bear Arms, shall not be infringed. 

[Article III J ] 

No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any Quartering 
house, without the consent of the Owner, nor in time of soldiers. 
of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 

[Article IV *] 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, Right of 
houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches search, 
and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants 
shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath 
or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to 
be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

[Article V *] 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or Protection 

otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or of accus ed 

indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in cases 

1 First ten amendments proposed by Congress, Sept. 25, 
1789. Proclaimed to be in force Dec. 15, 1 791. 



5i4 



APPENDIX 



Rights of 
accused 
regarding 
trial. 



Jury trial in 
lawsuits. 



Bail and 
punishment. 



Unenu- 
merated 
rights. 



Undelegated 
powers. 



the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in 
actual service in time of War or public danger; nor 
shall any person be subject for the same offence to be 
twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be com- 
pelled in any Criminal Case to be a witness against 
himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, 
without due process of law ; nor shall private property 
be taken for public use, without just compensation. 

[Article VI *] 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy 
the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial 
jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall 
have been committed, which district shall have been 
previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of 
the nature and cause of the accusation; to be con- 
fronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compul- 
sory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favor, and 
to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. 

[Article VII *] 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy 
shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury 
shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be 
otherwise reexamined in any Court of the United States, 
than according to the rules of the common law. 

[Article VIII *] 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive 
fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments in- 
flicted. 

[Article IX 1 ] 

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain 
rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage 
others retained by the people. 

[Article X 1 ] 

The powers not delegated to the United States by 
the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, 

1 First ten amendments proposed by Congress, Sept. 25, 
1789. Proclaimed to be in force Dec. 15, 1791. 



APPENDIX 



515 



are reserved to the States respectively, or to the 
people. 

Article XI 1 

The Judicial power of the United States shall not be Exemption 
construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, com- ° f States 
menced or prosecuted against one of the United States 
by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Sub- 
jects of any Foreign State. 



from suit. 



Article XII 

The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and 
vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of 
whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same 
state with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots 
the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots 
the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall 
make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, 
and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of 
the number of votes for each, which lists they shall 
sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the 
government of the United States, directed to the Presi- 
dent of the Senate ; — The President of the Senate 
shall, in presence of the Senate and House of Represent- 
atives, open all the certificates and the votes shall 
then be counted ; — The person having the greatest 
number of votes for President, shall be the President, 
if such number be a majority of the whole number of 
Electors appointed ; and if no person have such majority, 
then from the persons having the highest numbers not 
exceeding three on the list of those voted for as Presi- 
dent, the House of Representatives shall choose imme- 
diately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the 
President, the votes shall be taken by states, the repre- 
sentation from each state having one vote; a quorum 
for this purpose shall consist of a member or members 
from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the 
states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House 
of Representatives shall not choose a President when- 

1 Proposed September 5, 1794. Declared in force January 
8, 1798. 



New method 
of electing 
President. 

(To super- 
sede part of 
Art. II, Sec. 
1, cl. 2.) 



(Proposed 
Dec. 12, 
1803. 

Declared in 
force Sept. 
25, 1804.) 



5i6 



APPENDIX 



ever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before 
the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice- 
President shall act as President, as in the case of the 
death or other constitutional disability of the President. 
The person having the greatest number of votes as 
Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such 
number be a majority of the whole number of Electors 
appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from 
the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall 
choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose 
shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of 
Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be 
necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally 
ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible to 
that of Vice-President of the United States. 



Abolition of 
slavery. 
(Proposed 
Feb. i, 1865. 
Declared in 
force Dec. 
18, 1865.) 



Citizens of 
the United 
States — 
protection of. 
(Proposed 
June 16, 
1866. De- 
clared in 
force July 
28, 1868.) 



New basis of 
representa- 
tion in Con- 
gress. 

(Superseding 
part of Art. 
I, Sec. 2, 
cl. 3.) 



Article XIII 

Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, 
except as a punishment for crime whereof the party 
shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the 
United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this 
article by appropriate legislation. 

Article XIV 

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the 
United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, 
are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein 
they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law 
which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of 
citizens of the United States; nor shall any State de- 
prive any person of life, liberty, or property, without 
due process of law ; nor deny to any person within its 
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among 
the several States according to their respective num- 
bers, counting the whole number of persons in each 
State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the 
right to vote at any election for the choice of electors 
for President and Vice President of the United States, 
Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial 



APPENDIX 



17 



Disabilities 
of officials 
engaged in 
rebellion. 



officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature 
thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of 
such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens 
of the United States, or in any way abridged, except 
for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis 
of representation therein shall be reduced in the pro- 
portion which the number of such male citizens shall 
bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one 
years of age in such State. 

Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Represent- 
ative in Congress, or elector of President and Vice 
President, or hold any office', civil or military, under 
the United States, or under any State, who, having 
previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or 
as an officer of the United States, or as a member of 
any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial 
officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the 
United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or 
rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to 
the enemies thereof. But Congress may by two-thirds 
vote of each House, remove such disability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the Validity of 
United States, authorized by law, including debts war debt - 
incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for 
services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall 
not be questioned. But neither the United States nor 
any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation 
incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the 
United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation 
of any slave ; but all such debts, obligations and claims 
shall be held illegal and void. 

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, 
by appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. 



Article XV l 

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States Voting rights 
to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United of citizens of 



the U. S. 



Proposed February 



Declared in force March 



30, 1870. 



5iS 



APPENDIX 



States or by any State on account of race, color or 
previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce 
this article by appropriate legislation. 

Article XVI 1 

Income tax. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect 
taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, with- 
out apportionment among the several states, and with- 
out regard to any census or enumeration. 



Direct elec- 
tion of 
senators. 



Method of 
election. 

Temporary 
appoint- 
ments. 



Article XVII 2 

The Senate of the United States shall be composed 
of two Senators from each State, elected by the people 
thereof, for. six years ; and each Senator shall have one 
vote. The electors in each State shall have the quali- 
fications requisite for electors of the most numerous 
branch of the State legislatures. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any 
State in the Senate, the executive authority of each 
State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies : 
Provided that the legislature of any State may empower 
the executive thereof to make temporary appointments 
until the people fill the vacancies by election as the 
legislature may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to 
affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before 
it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. 



Proposed July 12, 1909. Declared in force February 25, 



1913- 



Proposed June 12, 191 2. Declared in force May 13, 19 13. 



INDEX 



Abolition Societies, in District of Colum- 
bia, 318. 
Acadia, 124. 
Acadians, 124. 
Adams, John, 176, 215, 223. 
Adams, John Quincy, 271. 
Adams, Samuel, 166. 
Agents, Colonial, 156. 
Aix la Chapelle, Treaty of, 117. 
Alabama Claims, 394. 
Alamo, The Siege of, 304-305 • 
Alaska Purchase, 395. 
Albany Congress, 121. 
Albemarle, 7°- 

Alien and Sedition Laws, 225. 
Allen, Ethan, 167. 

Amendments to Constitution, 399, 403. 
America, Origin of Name, 30. 
American Federation of Labor, 412. 
American Neutrality, 221. 
American Party, 327- 

American Tariff System, 251. 

Amherst, 126. 

Amnesty, 398. 

Anarchists, 413. 

Anderson, Major Robert, 337-339- 

Andre, Major, 187. 

Andros, Sir Edmund, 95. 

Anne, Queen, 116. 

Annexation of Texas, 306. 

Antietam, Battle of, 370. 

Anti-Federalist Party, 223. 

Anti-Rent Riots, 287. 

Anti-Slavery Movements, 323. 

Appomattox, 386. 

Arbitration and Peace Conference, 470. 

Arizona, 456. 

Arkansas Secedes, 340. 

Arnold, Benedict, 172, 182, 184, 186. 

Art. American, 269. 

Arthur, Chester A., 420. 

Articles of Confederation, 193. 

Astoria, 310. 

Atlanta, Capture of, 370-381- 



Atlantic Cable, 478. 
Austin, Moses, 303. 
Austin, Stephen, 304. 
Automobiles, 476. 

Bacon's Rebellion, 69. 

Baffin, 56. 

Balboa, 33. 

Baltimore, Lord, 103. 

Baltimore Secession Troubles, 340. 

Bancroft, George, Historian, 268. 

Bank of U. S., 218, 252, 278-281. 

Beauregard, General P. G. T., 348, 357- 

Bell, John, 334. 

Bemis Heights, Battle of, 182. 

Bering Sea Controversy, 432. 

Berkeley, Sir William, 68, 69. 

Bienville, Sieur de, 49. 

Bill of Rights, 209. 

Birney, J. G., 307- 

Blaine, J. G., 422. 

Bland Silver Bill, 420. 

Blockade, Southern, 35Q-357- 

Blok, 98. 

Bon Homme Richard, 198. 

Booth, John Wilkes, 392-393- 

Bore, Etienne de, 210. 

Boston Settled, 83. 

Boston Siege, 170, 171. 

Boston Massacre, 161. 

Boston Tea Party, 159. 

Braddock, General, 121, 122. 

Bradford, John, Gov., 82. 

Bragg, Braxton, General, 309, 362. 

Brandywine, Battle of, 183-184. 

Bread Riots, 282. 

Breckinridge, John C, 327- 

Brown, John, 326, 320-331- 

Bryan, William Jennings, 436, 446, 455. 

Bryant, William Cullen, 268. 

Buchanan, James, Pres., 327- 

Buell, Don Carlos, Gen., 355, 357- 

Buena Vista, Battle of, 3°9- 

Bull Run, Battle of, 348. 



519 



5 20 



INDEX 



Bunker Hill, Battle of, 168. 
Burgoyne, General, 181, 182. 
Burke, Edmund, 160, 163. 
Burnside, General A. E., 371. 
Burr, Aaron, 226, 234. 
Business Panics, 281-282, 414, 429. 
Butler, Benj. F., 351. 

Cabinet, President's, 216. 

Cable, Atlantic, 478. 

Cabot, John and Sebastian, 53. 

Calhoun, John C, 240, 307, 319. 

California, 316-318. 

Calvert, Cecil and George, 103. 

Canals, 262-263. 

Capital of United States, 217. 

Carolinas, 57, 70-73. 

"Carpetbaggers," 401. 

Carteret, George, 102, 107. 

Cartier, Jacques, 42. 

Carver,. John, 82. 

Catholics, Maryland Settled by, 103. 

Cemetery Hill, 374. 

Centennials, 482-486. 

Cervera, Admiral, 439, 441. 

Champlain, Samuel, 43, 44. 

Champlain Lake, Battle on, 243. 

Chancellorsville, Battle of, 371-372. 

Charles I, 105. 

Charles II, 69, 85, 93, 102. 

Charleston, S. C, founded, 70, 71, 72. 

Attacked by British, 1S7. 

Earthquake, 465. 
Charters, London Company and Plym- 
outh Company, 63. 

Massachusetts, 83, 93, 95. 

Rhode Island, 93. 

Connecticut, 93. 

Pennsylvania, 109. 
Chase, Salmon P., 322, 325. 
Chattanooga, 363-364. 
Chesapeake, American Frigate, 235. 
Chicago fire, 411. 
Chickamauga, Battle of, 363. 
Christiansen, 98. 
Civil Rights Bill, 399. 
Civil Service Reform, 420. 
Civil War, 343-387. 
Claiborne, William, 105. 
Clark, Champ, 456. 
Clark, George Rogers, 194. 
Clark, William, with Lewis Exploration 
of Louisiana Territory, 233. 



Clay, Henry, 271, 307, 319, 324. 

Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 451, 453. 

Clermont, 211. 

Cleveland, Grover, President, 422, 427. 

Clinton, Sir Henry, 168, 186. 

Coal Miners' Strike, 430-431. 

Coinage, 415, 420. 

Colleges, 137, 297. 

Colombia, Panama Canal, 453. 

Colonial Assemblies, 65, 79, 84, 87, 104, 

no. 
Colonies, American, Struggle for Inde- 
pendence, 150-205. 
Columbus, Christopher, 20-30. 
Commerce Commission, Interstate, 423. 
Committees of Correspondence, 15S. 

163. 
Compact. Mayflower, 82. 
Compromises — Constitution, 208. 

Missouri, 255-258. 

Compromise 1850, 318, 320. 
Concord, 166, 167. 
Confederacy, Southern, 336. 
Confederation, Articles of, 193. 
Congress, Continental, 163, 168, 183. 
Congress, Stamp Act, 157. 
Connecticut, 85. 

Constitution, American Frigate, 246. 
Constitutional Convention, 207. 
Constitution of United States, 208. 
Convention, Albany, 121. 

Hartford, 247. 
Cooper, James Fenimore, 268. 
Corinth, Battle of, 357, 358. 
Cornwallis, Lord, 188-193. 
Coronado, Francisco, 35. 
Corporations, 426, 430, 431, 450, 455. 
Cortez, Hernando, 44. 
Cotton, 346, 351. 
Cotton-gin, 209, 257, 475. 
Cowpens, Battle of, 189. 
Crawford, William H., 271. 
Crittenden Compromise, 325. 
Cromwell, Oliver, 68, 105. 
Crown Point, 121, 124. 
Cuba, 437. 
Custer, General George A., 411. 

Da Gama, Vasco, 20. 

Dale, Sir Thomas, 65. 

Dare, Virginia, 62. 

Davis, Jefferson, 322, 325, 336, 387. 

Davis, John, 54. 



INDEX 



521 



Dawes, William, with Paul Revere, 

166. 
Declaration of Independence, 175. 
Declaratory Act, 157. 
Deerfield, Mass., 116. 
Delaware, no, 343. 
De Leon, Ponce, 34. 
De Lesseps, Ferdinand, 452. 
Democratic Party, 333. 
Democrats, 323. 
De Soto, Hernando, 35, 36. 
Detroit, Surrender of, 242. 
Dewey, George, Commodore, 439. 
Dias, Batholomew, 19. 
Dingley Tariff Bill, 436. 
Dinwiddle, Governor, 118, 119, 120. 
District of Columbia, 318. 
Dix, Dorothea, 294. 
Donelson, Fort, 354. 
Doniphan, Major, 309. 
Dorr's Rebellion, 287. 
Douglas, Stephen A., 324, 327, 333. 
Drake, Francis, Sir, 57, 58, 61, 310. 
Dred Scott Decision, 328. 
Dunmore, Lord, 172. 
Duquesne, Fort, 120, 121, 122, 124. 
Dutch, 55, 85, 86, 99, 100, 102, 106. 
Dyer, Mary, 91. 

Early, Gen. J. A., 385. 

East India Company, 158. 

Edison, Thomas, 479. 

Education, 134-137, 151, 296-297. 

El Caney, 441. 

Electoral Commission, 417. 

Electricity, 479. 

Elizabeth, Queen, 54, 57, 59. 

Emancipation Proclamation, 375. 

Embargo Act, 235. 

Emigrant Aid Society, 325. 

Endicott, John, 83. 

Ericson, Leif, 12. 

Ericsson, John, 353. 

Erie, Lake, Battle of, 242. 

Erie Canal, 262-263. 

Eutaw Springs, 191. 

Expansion, 443. 

Exploration, Period of, 5-79. 

Expositions, 482-485. 

Fair Oaks, Battle of, 368. 
Farmers' Alliance, 426. 
Federalist Party, 223, 238. 



Ferguson, Major Patrick, 189. 
Field, Cyrus W., 478. 
Fifteenth Amendment, 403. 
"Fifty-four forty or Fight," 312. 
Fillmore, Millard, President, 322. 
Florida, American Frigate, 352. 
Florida Discovered, 34. 

Acquisition of, 253. 
Force Bill issued by Congress, 278. 
Foreign Relations with England, 234, 
236, 431-432. 

With Spain, 432-433. 

With France, 1S5, 192, 224-5. 

With Russia, 258, 454. 
Forest Reserves, 454. 
Forts, Donelson, 348, 354. 

Henry, 354. 

Jackson, 348, 352. 

St. Philip, 348, 352. 

Sumter, 337. 
Fourteenth Amendment, 399. 
France, Claims in America, 49, 113, 
114. 

Aids American Colonies, 185. 
Franklin, Benjamin, 176, 185, 199- 

201. 
Fredericksburg, Battle of, 370. 
Freedmen's Bureau, 400. 
Free-Soil Party, 315. 
French in Mexico, 394. 
Frobisher, 54. 

Fugitive Slave Laws, 322, 328. 
Fulton, Robert, 211. 

Gadsden Purchase, 310. 

Gage, General, 166, 170. 

Galveston, 467. 

Galvez, Bernardo, 201-202. 

Garfield, James A., President, 420. 

Gaspee Incident, 160. 

Gates, Horatio, 182. 

Genet, Edmond, French Minister, 222. 

George III, 152. 

Georgia Established, 73. 

Germans Settle in Pennsylvania, 131. 

Gettysburg. Battle of, 373. 

Ghent, Treaty of, 246. 

Gilbert, Humphrey, Sir, 59. 

Gold Discovered in California, 316. 

Goliad, 305. 

Gorgas, Wm., 464. 

Gorges, Ferdinando, 84. 

Gosnold, Bartholomew, 62. 



522 



INDEX 



Grant, U. S., General, 309, 355, 378, 383, 
402. 

President, 403, 407. 
Great Britain, impresses American Sea- 
men, 234-235. 

Venezuela Arbitration, 431. 
Greeley, Horace, 407. 
Greene, Nathanael, General, 188. 
Greenland visited by Eric, 12. 
Grenville, George, Colonial Policy, 155. 
Grenville, Richard, 58. 
Guadalupe-Hidalgo Treaty, 309. 
Guerriere, 246. 

Guilford Court House, Battle of, 191. 
Gustavus Adolphus, no. 

Hague Conference, 470-471. 
Halifax, 170. 
Halleck, H. W., 354, 358. 
Hamilton, Alexander, 217, 218. 

Secretary of Treasury, 216. 

Federalist, 223. 

Death, 234. 
Hampton Roads, 377. 
Hancock, John, 166. 
Harper's Ferry, 329-331, 365. 
Harrison, Benjamin, President, 425. 
Harrison, William H., 240. 

Succeeds Hull, 242. 

Elected President, 284-285. 

Death, 285. 
Hartford Convention, 247. 
Harvard College, 137, 298. 
Hatteras Inlet, 351. 
Hawaii, 443, 445. 
Hawkins, John, 57. 
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 268. 
Hayes, R. B., President, 416. 
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, 452. 
Henry, Fort, 354. 
Henry, Patrick, 194, 195. 
Hobson, R. P., 440. 
Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 269, 299. 
Hood, J. B., General, 381. 
Hooker, Joseph, General, 373. 
Hooker, Thomas, 86. 
Houston, Sam, 304, 305, 306. 
Howe, Robert, 188. 
Howe, William, General, Boston, 171. 

New York, 181. 

Brandy wine, 183. 

Philadelphia, 184. 
Hudson, Henry, 55. 



Huguenots, 50, 51. 

Hull, William, General, 242. 

Hutchinson, Anne, 91. 

Iberville (Pierre Le Moyne), 49. 

Iceland, n. 

Immigration, 265, 421, 423. 

Impeachment of Johnson, 402. 

Income Tax, 427. 

Indian, American, 4-11, 82. 

Treaty, no. 

Troubles, 411. 
Interstate Commerce, 423. 
Intolerable Acts, 160. 
Inventions, 473-481. 
Ironclads, 354. 
Iroquois, 103. 
Irving, Washington, 268. 
Isabella, 23. 
Island No. 10, 348, 357-358. 

Jackson, Andrew, 271. 

Defeats British at New Orleans, 245. 

President, 272. 
Jackson, Thomas Jonathan, 309. 

(Stonewall), 349. 

Battle of Manassas, 348. 

Valley Campaign, 368. 

Captures Harper's Ferry, 365. 

Battle of Chancellorsville, 371-373. 

Death, 372. 
James I., 63, 68. 
Jamestown, 64. 
Japan, 454- 
Jay's Treaty, 222. 
Jefferson, Thomas, 176. 

Secretary of State, 216. 

Kentucky Resolutions, 226. 

President, 228, 234. 

Retirement, 236. 
Johnson, Andrew, Vice President, Am- 
nesty Proclamation, 398. 

Removal of Stanton, 402. 

Impeachment, 402. 
Johnston, Albert Sidney, 348, 356-357. 
Johnston, Jos. E., General, 347, 380. 
Jones, John Paul, 197-199. 
Judiciary, Federal, 456. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 324. 
Kansas War, 325-327. 
Kaskaskia, 195. 
Kearny, Stephen W., General, 309. 



INDEX 



523 



Kentucky, 226, 343. 
Key, Francis Scott, 244. 
King George's War, 117. 
King Philip's War, 88. 
King William's War, 115. 
King's Mountain, 189. 
Knights of Labor, 412. 
Know Nothing Party, 327. 
Ku Klux Klan, 404. 

Lanier, Sidney, 300. 

La Salle, Robert Cavalier de, 46-40- 

Lawrence, Kansas, 326. 

Lecompton Constitution, 326. 

Lee, Charles, 179, 188. 

Lee, Richard Henry, 175. 

Lee/ Robert, Mexico, 309, 347. 

Six campaigns against Richmond, 365- 
372. 

Surrender, 386. 
Leon, Ponce de, 34. 
Lewis, Andrew, 172-173. 
Lewis and Clark Expedition, 233. 
Lexington, 166. 
Lincoln, Abraham, Douglas Debates, 329. 

Elected President, 234, 377. 

Emancipation Proclamation, 375. 

Reconstruction Views, 391. 

Death, 392. 
Lincoln, 188. 

Literature, 138, 267-271, 297-301, 323. 
Livingston, Robt. R., 176, 232. 
Locke, John, 71. 
London Company, 63, 81. 
Long, Crawford, Dr., 480. 
Longfellow, Henry W., 124, 297. 
Longstreet, James, General, 363, 365. 
Lookout Mountain, 365. 
Louisburg, 122, 126. 

Taken by English, 126. 
Louisiana Admitted, 239. 

Secedes, 336. 
Louisiana Purchase, 230-233. 
Lowell, J. R., 269. 

McClellan, George B., General, 344, 377. 

McCormick Reaper, 473. 

McDonogh, John, 296. 

MacDonough, Thomas, Victory on Lake 

Champlain, 243. 
McDowell, Irwin, General, 348. 
McKinley, William, President, 436, 446. 
Spanish-American War, 436. 



McKinley, William, Death, 447. 
McKinley Tariff, 426. 
Madison, Dolly, 244. 
Madison, James, Virginia Resolutions, 
226. 

President, 236, 238. 
Mafia, Italian, in New Orleans, 432. 
Magellan, 31. 

Magruder, J. B., General, 366. 
Maine, the Battleship, 438. 
Maine Settled, 84. 
Manassas Battle, First, 365. 

Second, 369. 
Manhattan Island, 98. 
Manilla Bay, Dewey's Victory, 439, 

442. 
Mann, Horace, 296. 
Marion, Francis, 188. 
Marshall, John, 224. 
Maryland Settled, 103. 

Remains neutral, 343. 
Mason, James M., 300. 
Mason, John, 84, 90. 
Massachusetts Bay Company, 83. 
Massasoit, 82. 

Maximilian I. in Mexico, 301. 
Mayflower, The, 81. 
Meade, George, General, 373. 
Mecklenburg Declaration of Independ- 
ence, 174. 
Mexico-Texas Revolution, 303-308. 

War with U. S., 308-310. 
Minuit, Peter, 100. 
Mississippi Secedes, 336. 
Missouri Compromise, 255-258. 
Missouri remains neutral, 343. 
Monitor and Virginia, 313. 
Monroe, James, President, 256. 
Monroe Doctrine Announced, 258. 

Reasserted against France in Mexico, 
394- 

In regard to Venezuela, 431. 
Montcalm, Marquis de, 126. 
Montgomery, Richard, at Quebec, 172. 
Montgomery Confederate Convention, 

336. 
Montreal, 42, 243. 
Morgan, Daniel, 189. 
Mormons, 288-289. 
Morris, Robert, 180, 183. 
Motley, John Lothrop, 301. 
Moultrie, Fort, 337. 
Murfreesboro, 363. 



524 



INDEX 



Nashville, 382. 
National Bank, 278-281. 
National Republicans, 279, 307. 
Navigation Laws, i53~i55- 
Negro Slavery, 255. 
Negro Suffrage, 399. 
New Amsterdam, 55, 100. 
New England, settled, 81-98. 

Confederation Manufactures, 141, 209. 
Newfoundland, 40. 
New Hampshire, 85. 
New Haven, 88. 
New Jersey, 105-107. 
New Jersey Plan, 208. 
New Mexico, 456. 
New Orleans settled, battle of, 244. 

Taken by Federals, 351. 
New York (City) becomes English, 102. 

Taken by British, 178. 
Non-Intercourse Act, 236. 
North Carolina settled, 70-73. 

Revolt, 159. 

Secedes, 340. 
Northwest Territory, or domaine of, 206, 

210. 
Norsemen, n-13. 
Nueces River, 308. 
Nullification Act, 275. 

Oglethorpe, James, 73-76. 

Omnibus Bill. See Compromise of 1850. 

Opecancanough, 66. 

Ordinance of 1787, 210. 

Oregon Boundary Question, 310-312. 

Otis, James, 154. 

Pacific Ocean discovered by Balboa, 34. 

Paine, Thomas, 181. 

Pakenham, General, at New Orleans, 245. 

Panama Canal, 451. 

Panama Treaty, 453. 

Pan-American Congress, 425. 

Panic, Financial, 281-282, 414, 429. 

Parcel Post, 460. 

Paris, Treaty of, between France and 

Great Britain, 129. 
Paris, Treaty of, between Great Britain 

and America, 193. 
Treaty of, between Spain and U. S., 

442. 
Parkman, Francis, 300. 
Patroons, 100. 
Payne- Aldrich Tariff, 455. 



Peace Conference, The Hague, 470-471. 
Peace Congress, 336. 
Peace Movement, 377, 470. 
Pemberton, J. C, General, at Vicksburg, 

358. 
Penn, William, 107. 
Pennsylvania Settled, 107. 
People's Party, 436. 
Pequot War, 87. 

Perry, O. H., Victory in Lake Erie, 242. 
Perryville, 363. 
Philadelphia, captured by British, 183. 

Centennial Exposition, 482. 
Philip, King, 88. 
Philippines, 445. 

Pickett, George E., Gettysburg, 374. 
Pierce, Franklin, 323. 
Pike, Zebulon, 233. 
Pinckney, Charles C, Minister to France, 

224-225. 
Pitcairn, John, Major, 167. 
Pitt, William, 157, 160, 162. 
Pizarro, Francisco, 35. 
Plymouth Company, 63, 79. 
Plymouth settled, 81. 
Pocahontas, 66-68. 
Poe, Edgar Allan, 298. 
Polk, James K., President, 307, 308. 
Polo, Marco, 21. 

Pope, John, at Island No. 10, 358. 
Porter, Daniel, Commodore, 359. 
Port Hudson, 361. 
Porto Rico, 442. 
Port Royal, Acadia, 43. 
Port Royal, S. C, 73. 
Portsmouth, Treaty of, 454. 
Post Office, 460. 

Potomac, Army of the, 370, 375. 
Potomac River, 118, 217. 
Powhatan, 66. 
Prescott, W. H., 301. 
President and Little Belt, 240. 
Presidential Succession Act, 422-423. 
Princeton College, 457. 
Prison Reforms, 293. 
Progressive Republican Party, 457. 
Prohibition Party, 422, 447. 
Proprietary Colonies, 76, 118. 
Providence Settled, 92. 
Pullman Car Strike, 431. 
Pure Food Law, 454. 
Puritans, 79. 
Putnam, Israel, 168. 



INDEX 



525 



Quakers, 107. 

Quartering of Troops, 160. 

Quebec, 126. 

Queen Anne's War, 116. 

Quincy, Josiah, 239. 

Railroads, 263-265. 
Raleigh, Walter, 59-62. 
Ransdell, J. E., 468. 
Randolph, Edward, 94. 
Rapidan River, 383. 
Rappahannock River, 371, 372. 
Reconstruction, Lincoln's Plan, 391. 

Johnson's Policy, 397. 

Congressional Plan, 392, 399. 
Red River Campaign, 361. 
Renaissance, The, 7-8. 
Representation in Congress, 207-208. 

In Parliament, 150-164. 
Republican Party Organized, 327. 
Revere, Paul, 166. 
Revolution, 150-215. 
Rhode Island Settled, 92. 
Ribault, Jean, 50. 

Richmond, Virginia, 340, 348, 365-373- 
Rochambeau, Count, 185. 
Rolfe, John, 67. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, President, 446, 449. 
Rosecrans, W. S., 363. 
Russia, Holy Alliance, 258. 

Purchase of Alaska, 395. 
Ryswick, Treaty of, 116. 

Sampson, W. T., Battle of Santiago, 439. 

San Jacinto, 306. 

San Juan, 441. 

Santa Anna, 304-305. 

Santiago de Cuba, 439. 

Saratoga, 182. 

Savannah, 188. 

Schley, 441. 

Schurz, Carl, 406. 

Scott, Dred, Decision, 328. 

Scott, Winfield, General, 309. 

Secession of S. C, other States, 334, 

340. 
Sedition Act, 225. 
Seven Days' Battles, 369. 
Seven Pines, Battle of, 368. 
Shafter, W. R., General, 440. 
Shannon and Chesapeake, 235. 
Sharpsburg, Battle of, 370. 
Sheridan, P. H., 385. 



Sherman, W. T., 383. 

Sherman Silver Act, 427, 430. 

Shiloh, 356-357- 

Silver, 420, 435. 

Smith, E. Kirby, 361. 

Smith, John, 64, 66. 

Smith, Joseph, 289. 

Smuggling, 153. 

Socialist Parties, 447. 

Social Life in Colonies, 143-148. 

Of the New States, 212, 213. 
Soto, de, Hernando, 35, 36. 
South Carolina, 70-73, 334. 
Spanish claims in America, 37. 
Spanish, Success in War of (Queen Anne's 

War), 116. 
Specie Circular, 281. 
Specie Payment, 415. 
Spoils System, 274. 
Spottsylvania Court House, Battle of, 

383. 
Stamp Act, 1 55-1 57- 
Stamp Act Congress, 157. 
Stark, John, 168, 182. 
Star-Spangled Banner, 244, 268. 
States Rights, 276-278, 315-333- 
Steamboats, 210, 265. 
Stephens, Alexander, 325, 336. 
Steuben, F. Von, 184. 
Stevens, Thaddeus, 399. 
Stowe, Harriet B., 323. 
Stuart, Gilbert, 269. 
Stuyvesant, Peter, 101. 
Subtreasury System, 283. 
Suffrage, Right of, 294-295. 
Sumner, Charles, 324-325. 
Supreme Court, 216, 328, 456. 
Swedes, no. 

Taft, W. H., Gov. of Philippines, 445. 

President, 455. 
Tariff, 272, 275, 278, 424. 

The Protective, 251. 

Democratic Reduction, 424. 

Mckinley Bill, 426. 

Wilson Bill, 430. 

Aldrich Bill, 455. 

Underwood Bill, 459. 
Tarleton, Banastre, General, 190. 
Taxation, 152-164. 
Taylor, Richard, 361. 
Taylor, Zachary, in Mexican War, 308. 

President, 316. 



526 



INDEX 



Tecumseh at Tippecanoe, 240. 

Killed in Battle of Thames, 243. 
Tenure of Office Act, 402. 
Territory, Northwest, 206, 210. 
Texas Annexation, 306. 

Revolution, 303-306. 
Thames River, Battle of, 243. 
Thomas, George H., General, 364, 379, 

382. 
Ticonderoga, 126. 

Taken by Ethan Allen, 167. 
Tilden, Samuel, Jr., 415. 
Toleration, Religious, 72, 93, 105. 
Toombs, Robert, 322, 325. 
Topeka Constitution, 326. 
Tories, 174. 
Toscanelli, 22, 23. 

Townshend Acts, 152, 153, 154, 155. 
Transportation Act, 160. 
Trent Affair, 393. 
Trenton, Battle of, 179. 
Tripoli, War with, 229-230. 
Trumbull, 269. 
Tyler, John, President, 286. 

Underground Railroads, 323. 
Underwood, Oscar W., 459. 
Union, needs for, 205, 206. 
Utah admitted, 289. 

Valley Forge, 184. 

Van Buren, Martin, 283, 316. 

Venezuela, 431. 

Verrazano, John, 40. 

Vespucius, Americus, 30. 

Vicksburg, 358-361. 

Vinland, 12. 

Virginia, 64, 66, 68, 226. 

Virginia and Monitor, 313. 

Virginia Plan, 207. 

War of 1812, 238-248. 
Warren, Fort, 300. 
Warren, General, 169. 
Washington, George, in French and 
Indian War, 119, 120, 122, 125. 



Commands American Army in Amer- 
ican Revolution, 168, 170-172, 17/ 
179, 181. 

President of Constitutional Conven- 
tion, 207. 

Elected President, 215. 

Death, 223. 
Washington City taken by British, 244. 
Wayne, Anthony, 219-220. 
Webster- Ashburton Treaty, 288. 
Webster, Daniel, 321, 324. 
West, Benjamin, 269. 
West Virginia, 344. 
Weyler, General, 438. 
Whisky Rebellion, 218. 

Ring, 410. 
White, Edward, 456. 
Whitman, Dr. Marcus, 312. 
Whitney, Eli, 200-210. 
Whittier, John Greenleaf, 299. 
Wilderness, Battles of the, 383. 
William, King, War, 115. 
William and Mary College, 137. 
Williams, Roger, 89, 92. 
Wilmot Proviso, 315: 
Wilson, W. L., Tariff, 430. 
Wilson, Woodrow, President, 457. 
Winthrop, John, Sr., 83. 
Witchcraft, 133. 

Wolfe, James, General at Quebec, 126. 
Woman's Suffrage, 294. 
Wright, Frances Bell, 294. 
Wright, Orville, 477. 
Wright, Wilbur, 477. 
Writs of Assistance, 153, 154. 

X, Y, Z Affair, 224-225. 

Yeamans, John, 70. 
Yeardley, George, 65. 
York, Canada, 243. 
York, Duke of, 102. 
Yorktown, Siege of, 192. 
Yorktown Peninsula, 366-368. 
Young, Brigham, 289. 



Printed in the United States of America. 



